The French Revolution
On the morning of 14 July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. The king had ordered troops into the city, and rumours spread that he would soon order the army to fire on citizens. In response, about 7,000 people formed a "peoples' militia" and began searching for weapons.
Their search led them to the fortress-prison, the Bastille. They stormed it, hoping to find ammunition. In the fight that followed, the commander was killed and the prisoners were freed, though there were only seven. The Bastille was hated because it symbolized the king's absolute and despotic power. The fortress was demolished, and its stone fragments were sold as souvenirs. This event marked the beginning of a chain of events that would change France forever.
In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family became the king of France at the age of 20. He married the Austrian princess Marie Antoinette. When he ascended the throne, he found an empty treasury.
Causes of the Empty Treasury:
To meet its expenses, the state was forced to increase taxes. However, the tax system was deeply unfair. French society was divided into three estates, and only the members of the third estate paid taxes. This system was part of the Old Regime, the term used to describe French society and its institutions before 1789.
The Three Estates:
The entire burden of taxes fell on the Third Estate. They paid a direct tax to the state called the taille, as well as numerous indirect taxes on everyday items like salt and tobacco.
From 1715 to 1789, the population of France grew from about 23 million to 28 million. This rapid growth led to a huge increase in the demand for foodgrains.
This often led to a subsistence crisis, an extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered.
In the past, peasants and workers had revolted against high taxes and food scarcity, but they lacked the means to bring about large-scale change. This role was taken up by the growing middle class within the Third Estate.
The eighteenth century saw the emergence of this new social group, which earned its wealth through overseas trade and manufacturing goods like woollen and silk textiles. The middle class also included educated professionals like lawyers and administrative officials.
This group believed that no one should be privileged by birth. Instead, a person's social position should be based on merit. They were inspired by the ideas of philosophers who promoted a society based on freedom, equal laws, and opportunity for all.
Key Philosophers and Their Ideas:
These ideas were discussed in salons and coffee-houses and spread through books and newspapers. They were often read aloud for those who couldn't read. When news spread that Louis XVI planned to impose more taxes, it generated widespread anger and protest against the system of privileges.
Louis XVI could not impose new taxes on his own; he had to call a meeting of the Estates General, a political body where the three estates sent their representatives. The last time this body had met was in 1614.
On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI convened the Estates General to pass proposals for new taxes.
The voting system was based on the old principle: each estate had one vote. The Third Estate demanded a new system where each member would have one vote. This was a democratic principle inspired by philosophers like Rousseau. When the king rejected this proposal, the members of the Third Estate walked out in protest.
The Tennis Court Oath On 20 June 1789, the representatives of the Third Estate gathered in the hall of an indoor tennis court on the grounds of Versailles.
While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles, the rest of France was in turmoil. A bad harvest had caused bread prices to rise, and bakers often hoarded supplies. Angry crowds, especially women, stormed bakeries after spending hours in long queues. On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille.
In the countryside, a wave of panic known as the Great Fear spread. Rumours circulated that lords had hired bands of brigands to destroy ripe crops. In fear, peasants attacked chateaux (castles), looted grain, and burned documents recording manorial dues. Many nobles fled the country.
Faced with the power of his revolting subjects, Louis XVI finally recognized the National Assembly. On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system, obligations, and taxes.
The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791. Its main goal was to limit the monarch's powers.
The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. It established rights like the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, and equality before the law as "natural and inalienable" rights. It was the duty of the state to protect these rights for every citizen.
Although Louis XVI had signed the constitution, he secretly negotiated with the King of Prussia. Rulers of other neighbouring countries were worried by the developments in France and planned to send troops to stop the revolution.
In April 1792, before they could act, the National Assembly declared war against Prussia and Austria. Thousands of volunteers joined the army, seeing it as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies. They sang patriotic songs like the Marseillaise, which is now the national anthem of France.
The war brought economic difficulties, and many people felt the revolution needed to go further because the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society. Political clubs became important gathering points. The most successful of these was the Jacobin club, led by Maximilian Robespierre.
Jacobin members were mainly from less prosperous sections of society, like shopkeepers, artisans, and daily-wage workers. They became known as the sans-culottes, meaning "those without knee breeches," as they wore long striped trousers to set themselves apart from the nobles who wore knee breeches.
On August 10, 1792, the Jacobins planned an insurrection. Angered by food shortages and high prices, they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king's guards, and held the king hostage.
The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On 21 September 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.
Louis XVI was sentenced to death for treason. He was publicly executed on 21 January 1793. Queen Marie Antoinette met the same fate shortly after.
The period from 1793 to 1794 is known as the Reign of Terror. Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment.
Robespierre's Policies:
Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters began to demand moderation. He was finally convicted by a court in July 1794, arrested, and guillotined the next day.
After the fall of the Jacobin government, the wealthier middle classes seized power. A new constitution was introduced that denied the vote to non-propertied sections of society.
However, the Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, leading to political instability. This instability paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.
From the very beginning, women were active participants in the revolution. Most women of the Third Estate had to work for a living and also care for their families. Their wages were lower than men's, and they had no access to education or job training.
To voice their interests, women started their own political clubs and newspapers. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was one of the most famous. Their main demand was to have the same political rights as men. They were disappointed when the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens.
Reforms for Women:
However, during the Reign of Terror, the government banned women's clubs and political activities. The fight for voting rights continued for centuries. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.
One of the most important politically active women was Olympe de Gouges. She protested the Constitution and the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen for excluding women. In 1791, she wrote a Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen. She was later tried for treason and executed.
One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in French colonies. Colonies in the Caribbean, such as Martinique and Guadeloupe, were major suppliers of tobacco, indigo, sugar, and coffee.
The shortage of labour on plantations was met by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, which began in the seventeenth century.
The National Assembly debated whether the rights of man should extend to the colonies but passed no laws, fearing opposition from businessmen who profited from the slave trade.
The years after 1789 saw many changes in the everyday lives of people in France. One of the most important laws was the abolition of censorship soon after the storming of the Bastille.
As a result, newspapers, books, and printed pictures flooded France, discussing the events and changes taking place. Freedom of the press allowed opposing views to be expressed. Plays, songs, and festive processions became a way for people, including those who couldn't read, to grasp ideas like liberty and justice.
In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France. He set out to conquer neighbouring European countries, seeing himself as a moderniser of Europe.
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