Key Points

A democracy works through three key institutions: the Legislature (makes laws), the Executive (implements laws), and the Judiciary (interprets laws and resolves disputes).

The Second Backward Classes Commission, known as the Mandal Commission, was appointed in 1979. It recommended a 27 percent reservation in government jobs for Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC).

On August 13, 1990, the Government of India issued an Office Memorandum (O.M.) implementing the Mandal Commission's recommendation for 27 percent job reservation for SEBCs.

In the 'Indira Sawhney & others vs Union of India case', the Supreme Court upheld the reservation policy in 1992 but directed the government to exclude the 'creamy layer' from its benefits.

Institutions are necessary to create rules and procedures for decision-making. They prevent hasty decisions and ensure that a wide range of people are consulted.

Parliament is the national assembly of elected representatives and the final authority for making laws. It also exercises control over the government and its finances.

The Indian Parliament has two houses: the Lok Sabha (House of the People), which is directly elected, and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), which is indirectly elected.

The Lok Sabha is more powerful than the Rajya Sabha because it has control over the Council of Ministers, more power in money matters, and its view prevails in a joint session.

The Political Executive consists of elected leaders like ministers who make policy decisions. The Permanent Executive is made up of long-term civil servants who implement these decisions.

In a democracy, the minister, an elected representative, has more power than the expert civil servant because they are answerable to the people and exercise the will of the people.

The Prime Minister is the head of the government. He is appointed by the President and is typically the leader of the majority party or coalition in the Lok Sabha.

The Prime Minister chairs Cabinet meetings, distributes work to ministers, coordinates different departments, and has the final say in disagreements. When the Prime Minister quits, the entire ministry quits.

This is the official name for the body that includes all ministers. Key decisions are taken in Cabinet meetings, which are attended by the top-level Cabinet Ministers.

The President is the head of the State but exercises only nominal powers. He or she acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister.

The President exercises personal discretion when appointing a Prime Minister in a situation where no single party or coalition secures a clear majority in the Lok Sabha.

The judiciary, comprising all courts, is an independent body that resolves disputes, interprets the Constitution, and safeguards the Fundamental Rights of citizens.

The judiciary is independent of the executive and legislative branches. Judges are appointed with minimal political interference and cannot be removed easily, ensuring fair judgments.

The Supreme Court and High Courts have the power of judicial review. They can examine the constitutional validity of any law or government action and can declare it invalid if it violates the Constitution.