Chapter Notes

Understanding Early Indian State and Society

When people live together in large groups, they naturally develop rules and shared norms to create order. In early India, these systems were based on customs and traditions. To understand this period, we need to know the difference between a 'society' and a 'State'.

• A society is a group of people sharing a territory and culture, bound by social relationships, families, and customs. It is mainly regulated by traditions, not formal laws.
• A State is an organized political system with formal rules and laws. It defines the rights and duties of both rulers and subjects and has institutions to enforce order.

Historically, states developed as societies grew larger and more complex. Our understanding of this evolution in India comes from both archaeological evidence and, from the second millennium BCE onwards, literary sources like the Vedas. The earliest of these is the Rigveda.

The Vedic Period and its Literature

The Vedas are the earliest known body of Indian literature. They existed in oral form for centuries before being written down. They are a key source for historians to understand the society, politics, economy, and religion of the time.

There are four main Vedas:

• Rigveda: The oldest Veda, containing 1,028 hymns (sūktas) praising various deities and reflecting on universal ideas like creation and death.
• Yajurveda: Focuses on the performance of rituals (yajñas) and includes explanations in prose.
• Sāmaveda: Contains hymns from the Rigveda arranged for musical chanting, forming a basis for Indian classical music's seven notes (svaras).
• Atharvaveda: Includes hymns for warding off evil and treating physical and mental illnesses.

Each Veda is divided into four parts:

• Samhitās: Hymns for invoking deities during yajñas.
• Brāhmaṇas: Prose texts explaining the rituals.
• Āranyakas: Philosophical thoughts from sages living in forests.
• Upaniṣhads: Deep philosophical discussions about the Self (Ātman) and the Ultimate Universal Being (Brāhmaṇ).

State and Administration

Political Institutions in the Vedic Period

Early Vedic society was organized into clans called janas, which were groups of people connected by kinship. The Rigveda mentions about thirty janas.

The leader of a jana was the rājā, who acted as a clan chief. His main roles were to lead the group in warfare and protect its members. The rājā's power was not absolute; it was checked by three assemblies:

• Sabhā: A smaller, elite body that served mainly as a judicial forum.
• Samiti: A larger assembly representing the general population, which discussed policy and political matters.
• Vidhata: A popular gathering for the whole community (jana) to discuss issues like warfare.

Early Kingdoms and Republics

Between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, political organization began to shift from being based on kinship (jana) to being based on territory. This led to the formation of janapadas, which literally means "where a people set its feet." This marked a crucial change where identity became tied to a specific land, not just to family ties.

From about 600 BCE to 300 CE, these janapadas evolved into larger political units known as mahājanapadas. Historical sources mention sixteen major mahājanapadas. Among them, Magadha (in modern-day Bihar) became the most powerful due to its strategic location, fertile land, and strong rulers.

During this time, two main forms of political organization existed:

1. Monarchical states (rājyas): Ruled by a king.
2. Republican states (gaṇas or samghas): Governed by an assembly or group of people.

In southern India, major political powers also emerged. The Satavāhana Empire succeeded the Mauryas in the Deccan. Further south, the kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras (also called Keralaputras) flourished. Much of our knowledge about these early Tamil kingdoms comes from Sangam literature, composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE.

Duties and Ideals of the King

From the 6th century BCE, rulers used various titles like rājā, mahārāja, or samrāṭ. Ancient texts like Kauṭilya's Arthaśhāstra and the Mahābhārata outline the ideals of kingship.

• Primary Duties: A king's main responsibility was to protect his subjects from both external threats and internal disorder. He was expected to be active, administer justice impartially, and work for the good of the people.
• Hereditary but not Absolute: While kingship was usually passed down from father to son, there are examples of kings being elected or even expelled. This suggests that the people or the council had some power over the ruler.
• Pan-Indian Vision: Rulers often aspired to control the entire Indian subcontinent. This ambition was expressed through terms like Jambudvīpa and Bhāratavarṣha, and through rituals like the Aśhvamedha yajña. The Arthaśhāstra defines the ideal territory of a universal ruler (chakravarti kśhetra) as the land between the Himalayas and the sea. This ideal was pursued by rulers across centuries, from Aśhoka of the Mauryan Empire to Rajendra I of the Chola dynasty.

Council of Ministers

A king did not rule alone. The Arthaśhāstra uses the metaphor that "one wheel does not move the carriage" to emphasize that a king needs a well-organized administration.

• Saptāmga Theory: Kauṭilya described the state as an organic body with seven essential parts: the king, ministers, territory, forts, treasury, army, and allies.
• Mantri-pariṣhad: The central administrative body was the council of ministers (mantri-pariṣhad). This was a small group of elder statesmen who advised the king. It typically included the treasurer, chief tax collector, chief legal advisor, and the army's commander-in-chief.
• Independent Power: An inscription by Aśhoka shows that in the emperor's absence, the council could make decisions independently for the public good, highlighting its significant authority.

How Were Empires Administered?

Large empires were managed through a system of decentralization, dividing the territory into smaller, manageable units.

• Administrative Hierarchy: Empires were divided into provinces, which were further broken down into divisions, districts, and finally, villages. The names for these units varied by region and time:
  • North India: Provinces (bhuktis), divisions (viṣhayas), districts (adhişhṭhānas), and groups of villages (vithis).
  • South India: Provinces (maṇḍalams), divisions (valanāḍus or koṭṭams), groups of villages (nāḍus), and individual villages (Urs).
• Local Governance: While the king held supreme authority, provincial governors and district officers managed daily administration. Importantly, local bodies, especially in villages, were largely autonomous.
• Gupta Administration: The Guptas (c. 320-550 CE) continued many earlier administrative forms but also introduced new roles, such as the sāndhivigrahika (minister of peace and war). District offices often included representatives of important local groups like chief bankers, traders, and artisans.
• Southern Kingdoms: The Pallavas, Chālukyas, and later the imperial Cholas (9th-11th century CE) also had a mix of centralized monarchy and decentralized local governance. Village assemblies were powerful, managing everything from irrigation and temples to revenue collection and justice.

Ethics: The Foundation of Law and Life

Ethics and moral principles were central to both state and society in early India. Early texts like the Vedas and epics discuss right conduct and the nature of the universe.

• Samatva: The principle of sameness, which holds that all beings are made of the same matter and consciousness. The epics often critique discrimination and promote the ideal of a ruler who works for the "welfare of all beings."
• Rita: A concept from the Rig Veda representing the cosmic order that maintains harmony in both nature and human society.
• Dharma: A core concept referring not just to religion, but to one's duty, righteousness, and moral conduct. The word comes from the Sanskrit root dhri (to uphold), meaning dharma is that which upholds society and existence itself.
  • In Buddhism, the equivalent term is dhamma, used by Emperor Aśhoka in his edicts to promote moral conduct, non-violence, and compassion.
• Ethics in Governance: The link between politics and ethics is seen throughout Indian history. The Uttaramerur inscription required election candidates to have "honest earnings" and be "pure" of mind. Texts like Kāmandaka's Nītisāra and Bāṇabhaṭṭa's Kādambarī also advised rulers on moral governance.

Social Structures and Everyday Life

Varṇa and Jāti

• Early Vedic Flexibility: In the early Vedic period, social identity was not rigidly fixed by birth. A verse in the Rigveda describes a family where the son is a poet, the father is a physician, and the mother is a grinder of corn, showing that people in the same family could have different occupations.
• The Four Varṇas: Over time, the concept of four social categories, or varṇas, emerged. The earliest reference is in the Puruṣhasūkta of the Rigveda. These were originally functional divisions:
  • Brāhmaṇas: Studied and taught the Vedas, performed rituals.
  • Kṣhatriyas (or Rajanya): Engaged in warfare, protected people, and administered justice.
  • Vaiśhyas: Involved in agriculture, trade, and pastoralism.
  • Śhūdras: Assisted the other three varṇas, but also engaged in economic activities like farming and crafts.
• Emergence of Jāti: Gradually, a more complex social structure called jāti emerged. While there were only four varṇas, there was no limit to the number of jātis. Jātis developed from factors like inter-varṇa marriages, migrating communities, and regional differences.
• Social Mobility: The system was not always rigid. Many ruling dynasties, like the Mauryas and Guptas, came from diverse social backgrounds. The Mandsaur Stone Inscription (473 CE) mentions a guild of silk weavers who were also skilled in archery and astrology, showing occupational mobility. In the south, Sangam literature like the Tolkappiyam mentions social divisions based more on occupation (kings, traders, farmers) than on a strict varṇa hierarchy.

Family and Society

• Kula, Grāma, Viśha, Jana: The basic social unit was the family (kula). Several families formed a village (grāma), a group of villages formed a viśha, and a collection of viśhas formed the jana (the people or clan).
• Gotra: This concept referred to a patrilineal clan traced to a common ancestor, often a Vedic sage. It played a role in regulating marriage.
• The Four Āśhramas: Life was ideally divided into four stages (āśhramas):
  1. Brahmacharya: The student stage.
  2. Grihastha: The householder stage.
  3. Vānaprastha: The retirement stage, moving away from worldly life.
  4. Samnyāsa: The stage of complete renunciation.
• The Four Puruṣhārthas: These were the four goals of life:
  1. Dharma: Righteousness and duty.
  2. Artha: Material well-being and wealth.
  3. Kāma: Fulfillment of desires.
  4. Mokṣha: Liberation from worldly ties. The pursuit of wealth (artha) and desire (kāma) was considered acceptable as long as it was guided by dharma.

Role of Women

• Vedic Period: Women held a respected position. They participated in scholarly debates, performed rituals, and attended social gatherings. The Rigveda attributes several hymns to women sages like Apālā, Ghoṣhā, and Lopāmudrā.
• Later Periods: Though their status fluctuated, women continued to play important roles. Prabhāvatī Gupta, a Vākāṭaka queen, ruled as a regent and issued land grants in her own name.
• Sangam Literature: Portrays women as active in the economy, involved in farming, cattle rearing, spinning, and trade. It also mentions influential women poets like Avvaiyar.
• Chola Period: Inscriptions record the contributions of royal women like Sembiyan Mahādevī, who supported the building of temples.

Religious Life and the Emergence of Bhakti

Vedic religion was closely tied to nature, with deities representing elements like the sun, rain, and fire. Over time, religious practices evolved.

• Renunciants: Around the middle of the first millennium BCE, a trend of renunciation emerged. Individuals known as śhramaṇas or bhikṣhus, like Gautama Buddha and Mahāvīra, chose to live as ascetics. This idea was also present in the Vedic tradition through the vānaprastha and samnyāsa āśhramas.
• Bhakti: A new path of devotion, Bhakti, gained prominence. It offered a direct, personal connection to deities like Viṣhṇu, Śhiva, and Śhakti, without the need for complex rituals. Bhakti was accessible to everyone, regardless of class or gender.
• Ālvārs and Nāyanmārs: The Bhakti tradition flourished in the Tamil region from the 6th century CE through the devotional poetry of the Ālvārs (12 saints devoted to Vishnu) and the Nāyanmārs (63 saints devoted to Shiva).

The Quest for Knowledge

Education in early India was holistic, aiming to cultivate inner values like truth, humility, and reverence for all beings.

• The Gurukula System: The primary mode of education was the gurukula, where students lived with their teacher (guru or āchārya) as part of the family. The guru-śhiṣhya paramparā (teacher-student tradition) was considered sacred.
• Curriculum: Students learned a wide range of subjects, including the Vedas, grammar, logic, philosophy, mathematics, and medicine. They were also trained in practical skills like martial arts, music, and crafts. Yoga and meditation were integral parts of their training.
• Centres of Learning: Over time, major institutions of higher learning, like Takshashila, emerged across the subcontinent, attracting students from India and beyond.

Economy

Agriculture and Land Revenue

Agriculture was the backbone of the economy. The Mauryan state, for example, had an elaborate system to manage it.

• State Encouragement: The state promoted the clearing of forests for agriculture but also protected certain forests by law.
• Taxation: The basic land tax was typically one-sixth of the produce. Land was classified into different categories for fair revenue assessment.
• Crops: A wide variety of crops were grown, including rice, wheat, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, and spices like pepper and turmeric.

Irrigation

Since agriculture depended on water, the state played an active role in building and maintaining irrigation systems.

Trade: Trade Routes and Ports

The expansion of trade was a major feature of this period. Well-organized states provided the safety and infrastructure for commerce to flourish.

• Major Land Routes: By the 6th century BCE, two major trans-regional routes connected the subcontinent:
  • Dakşhịnāpatha: The southern route.
  • Uttarāpatha: The northern route.
• Maritime Trade: Indian ports like Muziris, Kāveripaṭṭinam, and Arikameḍu were bustling hubs for both coastal and long-distance overseas trade, including significant trade with the Roman Empire.

Guilds

Trade and crafts were often organized into guilds (śhreṇīs), which were associations of people in the same profession.

• Functions of Guilds:
  • Regulated the quality and price of goods.
  • Supervised the conduct of their members through guild courts.
  • Acted as banks, financiers, and trustees.
• Guilds as Banks: The Nāśhik cave inscription (2nd century CE) records that a perpetual endowment was deposited with weavers' guilds, which paid a fixed interest. This interest was used to support Buddhist monks. This shows that guilds were trusted financial institutions.
• Patronage: Guilds also sponsored religious and artistic projects. An inscription at the Great Stupa at Sanchi mentions that the guild of ivory workers from Vidiśhā carved the stone sculptures on its gateways.