Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and ArchitectureClass 11 Fine Arts NCERT Solutions
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Q1Exercise
Describe the physical and aesthetic features of Sanchi Stupa-I.
Solution
Sanchi Stupa-1, a world heritage site in Madhya Pradesh, is one of the finest examples of stupa architecture. Its features can be described as follows:
Physical Features:
- Structure: Originally a small brick stupa from the Ashokan period, it was later expanded and covered with a stone casing, a railing (vedika), and gateways (toranas).
- Pradakshinapatha: It uniquely features two circumambulatory paths: a lower one at the ground level and an upper one.
- Vedika: A railing encloses the stupa and the ground-level circumambulatory path.
- Toranas: There are four intricately carved gateways, one in each cardinal direction. These were added in the first century BCE. Each torana consists of two vertical pillars and three horizontal bars.
- Pillar: An Ashokan lion-capital pillar with an inscription is located on the southern side, signifying the site's importance.
Aesthetic Features:
- Sculptural Style: The figure compositions on the toranas are in high relief, filling the entire available space. The carvings are more advanced than those at Bharhut, showing naturalistic postures, reduced rigidity, and a sense of movement.
- Symbolic Representation: The Buddha is not depicted in human form. Instead, he is represented through symbols such as an empty throne, footprints, the Bodhi tree, a wheel (chakra), and stupas.
- Narratives: The gateways are profusely decorated with sculptures depicting events from the life of the Buddha and stories from the Jatakas. Historical narratives, like the siege of Kushinara, are also carved with considerable detail.
- Figure Carving: The figures, though small, demonstrate great skill in sculpting. They have a naturalistic depth and dimension. Notable are the shalbhanjika figures (women holding a tree branch) that support the gateways, which are remarkable for their treatment of volume and graceful posture.
Q2Exercise
Analyse the stylistic trends of the sculptures in North India during the fifth and sixth centuries.
Solution
During the fifth and sixth centuries CE, sculptures in North India, particularly from the schools of Sarnath and Mathura, evolved towards greater refinement and spiritual expression, moving away from the Kushana period's robustness.
The key stylistic trends of this period are:
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Reduced Massiveness: The heaviness and fleshiness seen in earlier sculptures, especially from Mathura, were reduced. Figures became more slender, with tightened flesh and well-proportioned, slightly elongated bodies. The bulge of the belly, for instance, was sculpted with controlled musculature.
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Transparent Drapery: A defining feature of this era is the treatment of drapery. The garments are depicted as transparent, clinging to the body and revealing its form. In the Sarnath school, the drapery is often plain and integrated into the sculptural mass, creating a unified, smooth volume. In contrast, the Mathura school continued to depict the folds of the drapery, though with more subtlety.
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Refined Features and Expression: The facial features became more delicate. Faces are typically round, with half-closed eyes, protruding lower lips, and less fleshy cheeks compared to Kushana-era images. The overall expression is one of calmness, grace, and inner spirituality, aiming to represent the Buddha as a great being who achieved nibbana.
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Ornamentation: There was a difference in the use of ornamentation between the two main centers. The halo around the Buddha's head in Sarnath images is large but often plain or with very little decoration, which makes it visually impressive. In Mathura, the halo continued to be profusely decorated with geometric and floral motifs.
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Rhythmic Outlines: The outlines of the figures are delicate and rhythmic, contributing to a sense of subtle movement and grace. This refinement is a hallmark of the Gupta period's classical style, as exemplified by the Seated Buddha from Sarnath.
Q3Exercise
How did cave architecture develop in different parts of India, from cave shelters to the monolitic temple at Ellora?
Solution
The development of cave architecture in India shows a remarkable evolution from simple rock-cut shelters to complex, multi-storeyed monasteries and magnificent monolithic temples.
1. Early Phase (Second Century BCE onwards):
- The earliest rock-cut caves are found in Western India (e.g., Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Ajanta) and Eastern India (Udaigiri-Khandagiri in Odisha).
- These were primarily of two types: chaityas (prayer halls) and viharas (monasteries).
- Early chaityas were typically apsidal halls with a vaulted roof, often with a wooden facade. A rock-cut stupa was placed at the back for worship. Viharas consisted of a central hall with small cells cut into the walls for monks.
2. Period of Elaboration (First Century BCE - Fourth Century CE):
- Architectural plans became more complex. In Western India, stone screen walls were introduced at the front of caves for protection (e.g., Karla, Kanheri). Pillars were added inside halls, which became larger and more decorated with human and animal figures.
- The Karla chaitya hall is the largest of this period. Viharas also became more elaborate, with decorated pillars featuring ghata-base and ghata-capital designs, as seen at Nashik.
- The plan evolved, with some halls becoming rectangular and the quadrangular flat-roofed design gaining preference for viharas.
3. Mature Phase (Fifth Century CE onwards):
- This phase, seen prominently at Ajanta and Ellora, marks the peak of cave architecture.
- Caves became much larger, with some being double or even triple-storeyed (as at Ellora). Facades were elaborately carved with images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
- The interior plan combined the functions of the chaitya and vihara. A shrine with a large image of the Buddha was added to the back of the vihara hall, creating the chaitya-vihara.
- Pillars became massive and highly ornate, and the interiors were often covered with intricate sculptures and paintings.
4. Culmination in Monolithic Temples:
- The final and most spectacular stage of this development was the shift from excavating caves (interiors) to carving entire temples from a single rock (both interior and exterior).
- The Kailash temple (Cave No. 16) at Ellora is the supreme example of this achievement. It is not a cave but a complete, multi-storeyed temple complex carved downwards out of a single piece of rock. This monumental work represents the culmination of centuries of accumulated skill and experience in rock-cutting.
Q4Exercise
Why are the mural paintings of Ajanta renowned?
Solution
The mural paintings of Ajanta are renowned worldwide for several significant reasons:
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Unique Survival: Ajanta is the most significant and virtually the only surviving example of ancient Indian painting on a large scale, with continuous examples from the first century BCE to the fifth century CE. This makes the site an invaluable repository of early Indian art.
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Artistic Excellence and Technique: The artists at Ajanta displayed exceptional skill. The lines are rhythmic, forceful, and clearly defined. The painters created a sense of three-dimensionality and volume by skillfully merging body colour with the outlines and using outward projections. The use of various skin colours like brown, greenish, and yellow ochre suggests a sophisticated palette and an attempt to depict a diverse population.
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Thematic Richness: The themes of the paintings are primarily Buddhist, depicting events from the life of the Buddha, narratives from the Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha's previous lives), and Avadanas. These narratives are extensive, with some, like the Mahajanaka Jataka, covering entire walls, providing a rich visual library of religious and courtly life of the period.
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Expressiveness and Naturalism: The figures are full of life and emotion. The artists masterfully captured a range of expressions, from the serene compassion of the Bodhisattvas to the dynamic movement of dancers. The famous paintings of Padmapani and Vajrapani in Cave No. 1 are masterpieces of grace, compassion, and soft modelling.
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Stylistic Evolution: The caves showcase a clear evolution in painting styles. The early paintings in Caves 9 and 10 (first century BCE) are linear and resemble the sculptural style of Sanchi. The later paintings in Caves 1, 2, 16, and 17 (fifth century CE) are more sophisticated, with elegant, rhythmic figures, complex compositions, and a more painterly quality. This progression provides crucial insights into the development of Indian art.