Key Points

Memory involves three interrelated stages: Encoding, the process of registering information; Storage, retaining that information over time; and Retrieval, bringing the stored information back to awareness.

Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, this model suggests information flows through three distinct systems: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM).

This system registers information from the senses with a large capacity but a very short duration, typically less than a second. Examples include iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory.

STM holds a small amount of information for a brief period, usually 30 seconds or less, unless rehearsed. Its capacity is limited to approximately 7 plus or minus 2 items.

LTM is a permanent storehouse with a vast, unlimited capacity. Information here is primarily encoded semantically (by meaning), and what we experience as forgetting is often a failure of retrieval.

Control processes monitor the flow of information. Selective attention moves information from sensory to STM, maintenance rehearsal keeps it in STM, and elaborative rehearsal moves it to LTM.

Baddeley proposed that short-term memory is an active 'workbench' called working memory. It consists of components like the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and a central executive that manages information.

Proposed by Craik and Lockhart in 1972, this view states that memory retention depends on the depth of processing. Deep, semantic processing leads to more durable memories than shallow, structural processing.

Declarative memory involves facts and events that can be verbally described, like knowing a historical date. Procedural memory relates to skills and tasks, such as how to ride a bicycle.

Declarative memory is further divided into Episodic memory (biographical details of our lives) and Semantic memory (general knowledge and awareness of facts and concepts).

A pioneer in memory research (1885), Ebbinghaus found that forgetting is rapid initially but slows down over time. His work established the first systematic exploration of memory.

This early theory suggests that memory traces in the brain fade away over time due to disuse. It is now considered inadequate as it cannot explain all aspects of forgetting.

This theory suggests forgetting occurs when different memories compete with each other. Proactive interference is when past learning disrupts new learning, and retroactive interference is when new learning disrupts recall of old information.

Forgetting can occur when retrieval cues, which are aids for recovering information, are absent or inappropriate at the time of recall. The memory exists but is temporarily inaccessible.

Mnemonics are strategies for improving memory. They include using images, such as the keyword method and the method of loci, or using organization, like chunking and first-letter techniques (e.g., VIBGYOR).

To improve memory, one should engage in deep level processing. This involves focusing on the meaning of information and connecting it to existing knowledge, rather than rote memorization.

The PQRST method is a strategy to help students remember more. The acronym stands for Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, and Test.