Human MemoryClass 11 Psychology NCERT Solutions
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Q1Review Questions
What is the meaning of the terms 'encoding', 'storage' and 'retrieval'?
Solution
Encoding, storage, and retrieval are the three independent but interrelated stages of the memory process.
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Encoding: This is the first stage where information is recorded and registered for the first time. When an external stimulus is received by our sensory organs, it is converted into neural impulses. In this process, the incoming information is given some meaning and represented in a way that our memory system can process it further.
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Storage: This is the second stage where the encoded information is retained and held over a period of time. For information to be used later, it must be stored in the memory system.
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Retrieval: This is the third stage, which involves bringing the stored information into one's awareness so it can be used for cognitive tasks like problem-solving or decision-making. Memory failure can occur if one is unable to retrieve information that has been encoded and stored.
Q2Review Questions
How is information processed through sensory, short-term and long-term memory systems?
Solution
According to the Stage Model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, information is processed through three distinct memory systems: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
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Sensory Memory: All incoming information first enters the sensory memory. This system has a large capacity but a very short duration, lasting less than a second. It registers information from each sense as an exact replica of the stimulus (e.g., iconic memory for vision, echoic memory for sound).
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Short-term Memory (STM): Information from the sensory memory that is attended to enters the STM. The STM holds a small amount of information (capacity of 7±2 items) for a brief period, typically 30 seconds or less. Information in STM is primarily encoded acoustically. To be retained in STM for longer, it must be continuously rehearsed through a process called maintenance rehearsal. Without rehearsal, the information is lost.
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Long-term Memory (LTM): Information that survives the limitations of STM enters the LTM. This is achieved through elaborative rehearsals, where the new information is connected to existing information in the LTM. The LTM has a vast, potentially unlimited capacity and is a permanent storehouse. Information here is encoded semantically (in terms of meaning), and forgetting is often a result of retrieval failure rather than the information being lost.
Q3Review Questions
How are maintenance rehearsals different from elaborative rehearsals?
Solution
Maintenance rehearsals and elaborative rehearsals are two distinct control processes that determine the fate of information in the memory system. The key differences are as follows:
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Purpose and Location: Maintenance rehearsal is used to retain information in the Short-Term Memory (STM) for as long as required. Its primary function is to 'maintain' the information. In contrast, elaborative rehearsal is the process used to transfer information from the STM to the Long-Term Memory (LTM).
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Method: Maintenance rehearsal involves simple repetition, either silent or vocal. For example, repeating a phone number over and over again until it is dialed. Elaborative rehearsal is a more active and deeper process. It involves connecting the new information to information that already exists in LTM. This can be done by analysing the new information, creating associations, linking it to a logical framework, or forming a mental image.
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Effect on Memory: Information kept in memory through maintenance rehearsal is lost as soon as the repetition stops. It does not lead to durable, long-term storage. Elaborative rehearsal, by focusing on the meaning and connections of the information, leads to a more permanent and robust memory trace in the LTM, making it more resistant to forgetting.
Q4Review Questions
Differenciate between declarative and procedural memories?
Solution
Declarative and procedural memories are two major types of long-term memory. They differ in the kind of information they store and how that information is expressed.
| Feature | Declarative Memory | Procedural Memory |
|---|---|---|
| Type of Information | Stores information about facts, names, dates, and events. It is the memory for 'knowing what'. | Stores information about procedures for accomplishing various tasks and skills. It is the memory for 'knowing how'. |
| Verbal Expression | The contents are amenable to verbal description. You can easily state facts like "India became independent on August 15, 1947". | The contents cannot be easily described verbally. For example, it is difficult to explain exactly how to ride a bicycle or play a musical instrument. |
| Examples | Remembering that a frog is an amphibian, recalling your friend's name, or knowing the capital of a country. | Riding a bicycle, making tea, playing basketball, or typing on a keyboard. |
| Sub-types | It can be further divided into Episodic memory (personal life events) and Semantic memory (general knowledge). | It is sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory. |
Q5Review Questions
Why does forgetting take place?
Solution
Forgetting is the loss of stored information over a period of time. According to the chapter, there are several theories that explain why forgetting takes place:
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Forgetting due to Trace Decay: This is the earliest theory, also known as the disuse theory. It suggests that when a memory is formed, a physical change or 'memory trace' is created in the central nervous system. If these traces are not used for a long time, they simply fade away and become unavailable. However, this theory is considered inadequate as it cannot explain why sleep, a period of disuse, actually helps in retaining memories better than remaining awake.
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Forgetting due to Interference: This influential theory suggests that forgetting is not due to the loss of information but due to interference between various pieces of information in the memory store. Associations formed during learning compete with each other at the time of retrieval.
- Proactive Interference: Past learning interferes with the recall of new information (e.g., knowing English makes it difficult to learn French).
- Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with the recall of past information (e.g., after learning French, you cannot recall the English equivalents).
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Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure: This view suggests that information is stored in long-term memory but becomes inaccessible because the retrieval cues are absent or inappropriate at the time of recall. Retrieval cues are aids that help in recovering stored information. The information is not lost, but it cannot be accessed without the right cues, much like being unable to find a book in a library without the correct catalogue information.
Q6Review Questions
How is retrieval related forgetting different from forgetting due to interference?
Solution
Retrieval-related forgetting and forgetting due to interference are two different explanations for why we fail to remember information. The fundamental difference lies in their proposed cause of forgetting.
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Forgetting due to Interference: This theory posits that forgetting occurs because of competition between memories. The information is assumed to be present in the memory store, but other learned information gets in the way during recall. The issue is one of competition. For example, when trying to recall an old phone number, the memory of your new phone number might interfere (retroactive interference).
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Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure: This theory proposes that the memory is stored and available, but it cannot be accessed. The problem is not competition from other memories, but the absence of suitable cues to locate and bring the memory to awareness. The information is inaccessible rather than unavailable. For instance, you might not be able to recall a list of words, but if you are given category names as cues (e.g., 'types of metal', 'insects'), your recall improves dramatically because the cues help you access the stored information.
In summary, interference theory explains forgetting as a result of a 'traffic jam' of competing memories, while retrieval failure theory explains it as being 'lost' in the memory store without a proper map or signpost (cue) to find it.
Q7Review Questions
Define mnemonics? Suggest a plan to improve your own memory.
Solution
Definition of Mnemonics:
Mnemonics are strategies or techniques for improving memory. They are systematic aids that help organize and encode information, making it easier to retrieve later. Some mnemonics involve using images, while others rely on organizing the information in a specific way.
A Plan to Improve Memory:
A comprehensive plan to improve one's own memory, based on the chapter, would involve applying knowledge about memory processes and using specific strategies. The plan could be as follows:
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Engage in Deep Level Processing: Instead of rote memorization, focus on understanding the meaning of the material. Ask questions about the information, consider its implications, and relate it to what you already know. This creates a richer, more meaningful memory trace that is resistant to forgetting.
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Use Mnemonic Devices:
- For lists or sequences: Use the Method of Loci by associating items with familiar physical locations, or the First Letter Technique to create an acronym or a sentence (e.g., VIBGYOR for rainbow colours).
- For vocabulary: Use the Keyword Method, where you associate a new word with a similar-sounding known word and create an interacting image.
- For complex information: Use Chunking to group smaller units of information into larger, meaningful chunks.
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Minimise Interference: Arrange study sessions to avoid learning very similar subjects one after the other, as this can cause maximum interference. Distribute your learning by taking intermittent breaks rather than cramming everything at once.
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Provide Yourself with Retrieval Cues: While learning, actively identify potential retrieval cues. Link parts of the study material to these cues. When it is time to recall, these cues will help you access the larger body of information.
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Use the PQRST Method: Follow this structured approach for studying textual material:
- P (Preview): Skim the chapter to get a general idea of the contents.
- Q (Question): Formulate questions based on the chapter headings.
- R (Read): Read the material carefully, seeking answers to your questions.
- S (Self-recitation): Try to recall and rewrite what you have read in your own words.
- T (Test): Test yourself on how much you have understood and retained.
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Pay Attention to General Well-being: Acknowledge that memory is affected by factors like health, interest, and motivation. Ensuring good physical health and maintaining a genuine interest in the subject matter can significantly enhance memory performance.