Key Points

Thinking is a higher mental process that manipulates and analyzes information. It is goal-directed, internal, and forms the base of all cognitive activities like problem solving and reasoning.

Thinking relies on two main building blocks: mental images, which are mental representations of sensory experiences, and concepts, which are mental representations of a category or class of objects.

Problem solving is goal-directed thinking that moves from an initial state (the problem) to an end state (the goal) through a series of mental operations or steps.

Two major obstacles are mental set, the tendency to use previously successful strategies, and functional fixedness, which is being fixed on an object's usual function, hindering innovative use.

Deductive reasoning starts from a general assumption or premise and moves to a specific conclusion. It is reasoning from the general to the particular.

Inductive reasoning is based on specific facts and observations to draw a general conclusion. It is reasoning from the particular to the general.

Decision-making is a type of problem solving where we choose among several known alternatives. The process involves evaluating the cost and benefit associated with each option.

Creative thinking involves producing ideas or solutions that are novel, original, and appropriate. It is not just thinking differently but creating something unique and socially desirable.

J.P. Guilford proposed two types of thinking. Convergent thinking is required for problems with a single correct answer, while divergent thinking is open-ended, generating multiple possible solutions.

Divergent thinking includes fluency (producing many ideas), flexibility (variety in ideas), originality (producing unusual ideas), and elaboration (developing ideas in detail).

Coined by Edward de Bono, lateral thinking is similar to divergent thinking. It involves looking for alternative ways of defining and interpreting problems rather than following a single logical path.

Creative thinking typically follows four stages: preparation (understanding the problem), incubation (unconscious work on the problem), illumination (the 'Aha!' moment), and verification (testing the idea).

Brainstorming is a strategy to enhance creativity by encouraging the generation of many ideas without immediate evaluation. The focus is on quantity and fluency of ideas first.

Benjamin Lee Whorf's linguistic relativity hypothesis suggests that language determines the content and structure of thought. The language we speak shapes how we think.

Jean Piaget argued that thought not only determines language but also precedes it. He believed children first form concepts and internal representations, and language is then used to express this thinking.

Lev Vygotsky proposed that language and thought have different origins but merge around the age of two. After this point, thought becomes verbal and speech becomes rational.

Children acquire language in predictable stages: crying, cooing, babbling, the one-word stage (holophrases), and the two-word stage (telegraphic speech), eventually leading to complex sentences.

B.F. Skinner believed language is learned through reinforcement and imitation (nurture). Noam Chomsky argued that humans are born with an innate capacity for language, a 'universal grammar' (nature).

Culture influences thinking styles. For example, American culture often promotes analytical thinking (focus on objects), while Asian cultures may promote holistic thinking (focus on relationships and context).

Bilingualism is proficiency in two languages, while multilingualism is proficiency in more than two. Studies show that being bilingual or multilingual can facilitate cognitive and academic competence.