Key Points

Historians describe two processes at work from the mid-first millennium CE: the dissemination of Brahmanical ideas ('great tradition') and the acceptance and reworking of local beliefs ('little tradition'). The cult of Jagannatha at Puri, a local deity identified with Vishnu, is a key example of this integration.

Bhakti traditions are often classified into two broad categories. Saguna bhakti focused on the worship of specific deities with attributes like Shiva and Vishnu, while Nirguna bhakti was the worship of a formless, abstract God.

Beginning around the sixth century, the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) led early bhakti movements. They travelled singing hymns in Tamil and initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas.

The bhakti movements were notable for the presence of women. Andal, a woman Alvar, saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu, while Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted extreme asceticism, challenging patriarchal norms.

In the twelfth century, a new movement emerged in Karnataka led by a Brahmana named Basavanna. His followers, known as Virashaivas or Lingayats, worshipped Shiva as a linga, challenged the caste system, and questioned the theory of rebirth.

With the advent of Islam, rulers were theoretically guided by the ulama and the shari'a. The category of zimmi (protected) was developed for non-Muslims like Hindus, who paid a tax called jizya to be protected by Muslim rulers.

Sufism was a mystical movement within Islam where ascetics protested against the growing materialism of the Caliphate. They sought salvation through intense devotion and love for God, interpreting the Quran based on personal experience.

Sufis organized communities around a khanqah (hospice) controlled by a teaching master called a shaikh or pir. The silsila, a spiritual chain, signified a continuous link between master and disciple, tracing back to the Prophet Muhammad.

When a shaikh died, his tomb-shrine or dargah became a center of devotion for his followers. The practice of pilgrimage (ziyarat) to his grave, especially on his death anniversary (urs), was and is a common practice.

Sufi traditions were categorized based on their observance of Islamic law. Ba-shari'a sufis complied with the shari'a, while be-shari'a sufis, like Qalandars and Madaris, often ignored it and practiced extreme asceticism.

The Chishtis were the most influential sufi group in India, successfully adapting to the local environment. They established khanqahs, such as that of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, which became centers of social and spiritual life.

Music and dance were central to Chishti devotion. Sama, or mystical music performance, was used to evoke divine ecstasy. Amir Khusrau introduced the qaul, a hymn which gave a unique form to the Chishti sama, leading to the development of qawwali.

Chishti sufis maintained a distance from worldly power but accepted unsolicited grants and donations from political elites. Rulers sought their support for legitimation, as sufis were believed to derive their authority directly from God.

Kabir (c. 14th-15th centuries) was an outstanding nirguna poet-saint who challenged entrenched religious traditions. He described the Ultimate Reality using terms from both Islamic (Allah, Khuda) and Vedantic (alakh, nirakar) traditions and attacked polytheism and idol worship.

Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) advocated a form of nirguna bhakti, rejecting external practices of both Hinduism and Islam. He organized his followers into a community, and his teachings, compiled in the Guru Granth Sahib, formed the basis of Sikhism.

Mirabai (c. 15th-16th centuries) was a Rajput princess who defied social conventions to express her devotion to Krishna. Her compositions, known as bhajans, are characterized by intense expressions of love for the deity and continue to be widely sung.