Bhakti- Sufi TraditionsClass 12 History NCERT Solutions

Historians use the term 'integration of cults' to describe the processes through which different religious beliefs and practices were synthesized over time. This involved at least two major processes.

One was the dissemination of Brahmanical ideas, such as through the compilation of Puranas in simple Sanskrit to make them accessible to women and Shudras. The second, and more significant, process was the acceptance and reworking of local or 'little' traditions by the Brahmanas into the larger 'great' Sanskritic Puranic framework.

A prime example is the cult of Jagannatha (a form of Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. By the twelfth century, a local deity, whose image was made of wood by tribal specialists, came to be identified as a form of Vishnu. This integration is also seen in goddess cults, where local goddesses, often worshipped as stones smeared with ochre, were incorporated into the Puranic framework by being identified as consorts of major male deities, such as Lakshmi (wife of Vishnu) or Parvati (wife of Shiva).

The architecture of mosques in the subcontinent compellingly reflects a combination of universal Islamic ideals and diverse local traditions. The universal features are dictated by the core tenets of the faith. These include the orientation of the mosque towards Mecca, which is indicated by the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). These elements are found in mosques across the world, providing a sense of unity within the global Muslim community.

However, these universal ideals are blended with distinct local architectural styles and materials. This is evident in:

This synthesis demonstrates how Islam was adopted and expressed through local cultural and environmental contexts, creating a unique architectural heritage.

The ba-shari'a and be-shari'a were two different approaches within Sufism, sharing a common mystical goal but differing in their methods and adherence to Islamic law.

Similarities: Both traditions were composed of mystics who sought union with God. They emphasized love and devotion as the path to salvation and followed the example of the Prophet Muhammad. Both were critical of the dogmatic interpretations of Islam by theologians and the growing materialism of the Caliphate.

Differences: The primary difference lay in their attitude towards the shari'a (Islamic law).

The Alvars, Nayanars, and Virashaivas expressed significant critiques of the caste system and Brahmanical dominance through their teachings and social composition.

Alvars and Nayanars: These Tamil poet-saints initiated a movement of protest against the caste system. This is evident from the fact that their followers hailed from diverse social backgrounds, including artisans, cultivators, and even castes considered 'untouchable'. Their compositions challenged the exclusive authority of the Vedas, with the Alvar anthology, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, being described as the 'Tamil Veda'. The Alvar saint Tondaradippodi's composition explicitly states that Vishnu prefers a devotee from an 'outcaste' background over a learned Brahmana who lacks devotion. Similarly, the Nayanar saint Appar questioned the relevance of caste markers like gotra and kula.

Virashaivas (Lingayats): Led by Basavanna in twelfth-century Karnataka, the Virashaivas mounted a more radical challenge. They directly questioned the idea of caste and the notion of 'pollution' attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. They also rejected the theory of rebirth, a cornerstone of the caste system. By encouraging practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and widow remarriage, they actively worked to create a more egalitarian social order, attracting many followers from marginalized communities.

Kabir, a poet-saint of the fourteenth-fifteenth centuries, is an outstanding figure in the bhakti tradition whose teachings challenged established religious and social norms.

Transmission of Teachings: Kabir's teachings were transmitted orally and compiled long after his death. They are preserved in three distinct but overlapping traditions:

Sufism, or tasawwuf, is a mystical dimension of Islam that emerged in protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate. It is characterized by a set of distinct beliefs and practices aimed at achieving a direct, personal experience of God.

Major Beliefs: The core belief of Sufism is seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God. Sufis were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of theologians, emphasizing instead an interpretation of the Qur'an based on personal mystical experience. They regarded the Prophet Muhammad as a perfect human being and sought to follow his example. Sufis aimed to attain union with God, believing that in death, the soul of a saint unites with the divine.

A key concept is the wali (friend of God), a sufi who claims proximity to Allah and acquires His grace (barakat) to perform miracles (karamat).

Rulers throughout medieval India actively sought to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the sufis for several strategic reasons, primarily to legitimize their authority, proclaim their power, and secure the support of their subjects.

Why Rulers Sought Connections: Both Nayanar and sufi saints commanded immense respect and devotion from the masses, including powerful peasant and artisan communities. By associating with these popular figures, rulers could win the support and loyalty of these groups. This association also served to claim divine sanction for their rule. For the Delhi Sultans, who ruled over a predominantly non-Muslim population, association with sufis provided a source of legitimation that was independent of the orthodox ulama's insistence on strictly imposing shari'a law. It was believed that saints could intercede with God on behalf of ordinary people, and kings hoped this divine grace would extend to their kingdoms.

How Connections were Established with Nayanars: The powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) patronized the Nayanar tradition extensively. They demonstrated their support by:

How Connections were Established with Sufis: Sultans and Mughal emperors also forged strong links with sufi shaikhs. Their methods included:

Bhakti and sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages, primarily regional vernaculars, to express their ideas. The fundamental reason for this was to make their message of love, devotion, and social critique accessible to the widest possible audience, including ordinary people, women, and lower castes who were often excluded from learning the elite languages of Sanskrit and Persian.

By using the language of the people, these poet-saints could communicate complex philosophical and mystical ideas in a simple, direct, and emotionally resonant manner. This approach was crucial for the widespread popularity and growth of these movements, as it fostered a direct connection between the saint and the devotee, bypassing the traditional Brahmanical and ulama intermediaries.

In essence, the adoption of vernacular languages was a deliberate and transformative choice that democratized religious expression and ensured the enduring legacy of bhakti and sufi thought.

The sources in this chapter provide profound insights into the social and religious ideas of the bhakti and sufi traditions, often highlighting themes of devotion, social critique, and the nature of the divine. An analysis of five sources reveals these recurring ideas.