Key Points

The most distinctive artifact of the Harappan civilization is the steatite seal, which often contains animal motifs and signs from a script that remains undeciphered. These were likely used for long-distance trade to mark the identity of the sender.

The civilization is divided into Early Harappan (c. 6000-2600 BCE), Mature Harappan (c. 2600-1900 BCE), and Late Harappan (c. 1900-1300 BCE). The Mature phase was the most prosperous and urbanized period.

Harappan cities like Mohenjodaro were well-planned, typically divided into a smaller, higher Citadel and a larger Lower Town. The layout featured a grid pattern for streets and the use of standardized bricks.

A key feature of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. Every house had drains connected to covered street drains, indicating a strong emphasis on sanitation and public health.

The Harappans ate a wide range of plant products like wheat, barley, and lentils, and animal products from cattle, sheep, and goat. Archaeologists reconstruct diet from charred grains and animal bones.

Evidence of agriculture includes finds of grain, terracotta models of the plough, and a ploughed field at Kalibangan. Irrigation was likely used, with traces of canals at Shortughai and water reservoirs at Dholavira.

Archaeologists study burial practices and artifacts to trace social differences. While some graves contain pottery and ornaments, Harappans generally did not believe in burying precious things with the dead.

Social status is also inferred by distinguishing between utilitarian objects made of common materials and luxury items made of rare, costly materials like faience. Luxury goods are mostly found in large settlements like Mohenjodaro.

Chanhudaro was a tiny settlement almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, and metal-working. Nageshwar and Balakot were specialized centers for making shell objects.

A variety of materials were used, including stones like carnelian and steatite, metals like copper and gold, and shell and faience. Techniques for making beads varied according to the material.

Harappans procured materials by establishing settlements near sources, like Shortughai for lapis lazuli, or by sending expeditions to regions like Khetri for copper and South India for gold.

Evidence suggests long-distance trade with Oman (for copper), Bahrain (Dilmun), and Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian texts refer to trade with a region named Meluhha, which is thought to be the Harappan region.

Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert. The lower denominations were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32) while higher denominations followed the decimal system.

The uniformity in artifacts and planned settlements suggests a complex political organization. However, there is no conclusive evidence of a king or palace, and theories about rulers remain speculative.

By around 1800 BCE, most Mature Harappan sites were abandoned. The decline is marked by the disappearance of seals, writing, and standardized weights, with proposed causes including climate change, floods, or deforestation.

The significance of the civilization was realized in the 1920s. John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery in 1924. R.E.M. Wheeler later improved excavation methods by following stratigraphy.

Reconstructing Harappan religion is challenging. Interpretations of objects like the 'mother goddess' figurines and the 'proto-Shiva' seal are based on assumptions and comparisons with later traditions, and remain speculative.

Recent DNA analysis from skeletal remains at Rakhigarhi suggests that Harappans were indigenous people. This research indicates a genetic continuity in the region and challenges theories of large-scale Aryan migration.