Bricks, Beads and BonesClass 12 History NCERT Solutions
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Q1Answer the following questions
List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these.
Solution
Based on archaeological evidence, the Harappans consumed a wide range of plant and animal products.
Food Items Available:
- Plant Products: Grains such as wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame were common. Millets have been found at sites in Gujarat, while rice was relatively rare.
- Animal Products: The Harappans consumed meat from domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig. They also ate wild species such as boar, deer, and gharial. Bones of fish and fowl have also been found.
Groups Providing the Food:
- Agriculturists/Farmers: These people would have cultivated the land and provided the various grains and plant products.
- Pastoralists: Groups who herded domesticated animals would have supplied meat and other animal products.
- Hunter-Gatherer Communities: The Harappans might have hunted wild animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities.
- Fishermen: These communities would have provided fish from the rivers and coastal areas.
Q2Answer the following questions
How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they notice?
Solution
Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society primarily through two strategies: studying burials and analysing artefacts.
1. Studying Burials:
Archaeologists examine the differences in burial practices. In Harappan sites, the dead were generally laid in pits.
- Differences Noticed: Some burial pits were simple, while others were lined with bricks, which may indicate a higher social status. Some graves contained grave goods like pottery and ornaments, suggesting a belief in an afterlife. For example, a burial of a male at Harappa contained three shell rings, a jasper bead, and hundreds of micro beads. However, unlike in other civilisations like Egypt, the Harappans did not seem to believe in burying precious items with the dead in large quantities.
2. Studying Artefacts:
Archaeologists classify artefacts into utilitarian and luxury categories.
- Utilitarian Objects: These include items of daily use made from ordinary materials like stone or clay, such as querns, pottery, and needles. They are typically found distributed throughout all settlements.
- Luxury Objects: These are rare items made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. For instance, small pots of faience (a polished, glassy substance) were considered precious because they were difficult to make.
- Differences Noticed: The distribution of these items reveals social differences. Luxury artefacts are generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and are rarely found in smaller settlements. For example, miniature faience pots, possibly used for perfumes, are found mostly in the major cities, while gold was rare and usually recovered from hoards.
Q3Answer the following questions
Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your answer.
Solution
Yes, I agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities is a strong indicator of advanced town planning. The meticulous and systematic nature of the drainage network suggests it was conceived and executed as part of a larger plan.
Reasons:
- Systematic Layout: Roads and streets were laid out in an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. It appears that streets with drains were laid out first, and then houses were built alongside them. This sequence implies a deliberate design before construction began.
- Household Connectivity: Every house was connected to the street drains. Bathrooms were paved with bricks, and their drains connected through the wall to the main street drains, ensuring efficient disposal of domestic wastewater.
- Advanced Construction: The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar. They were covered with loose bricks or limestone that could be removed for cleaning, indicating a concern for maintenance.
- Maintenance Features: The system included sumps or cesspits at intervals where solid waste could settle, preventing blockages. The presence of small heaps of sand alongside drains suggests they were regularly cleaned.
- Widespread Application: This advanced drainage system was not limited to large cities like Mohenjodaro but was also found in smaller settlements. For instance, at Lothal, houses were built of mud bricks, but drains were made of more durable burnt bricks.
These features collectively demonstrate a sophisticated level of civil engineering and public health management that could only be achieved through careful and centralised town planning.
Q4Answer the following questions
List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan civilisation. Describe the process by which any one kind of bead was made.
Solution
The Harappans used a remarkable variety of materials to make beads.
Materials Used for Beads:
- Stones: Carnelian (a red stone), jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite (a soft stone).
- Metals: Copper, bronze, and gold.
- Other Materials: Shell, faience (a man-made material), and terracotta (burnt clay).
Some beads were composite, made of two or more stones cemented together, or stone with gold caps.
Process of Making Carnelian Beads:
The process of making carnelian beads was complex and involved multiple stages:
- Obtaining Colour: The distinctive red colour of carnelian was achieved by firing the yellowish raw material and the beads at various stages of production.
- Chipping and Flaking: First, nodules of the raw material were chipped into rough shapes.
- Final Shaping: These rough shapes were then finely flaked to achieve the final desired form (e.g., cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped).
- Finishing: The process was completed with grinding, polishing, and finally, drilling the hole through the bead. Specialised drills for this purpose have been discovered at craft centres like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira.
Q5Answer the following questions
Look at Fig. 1.30 and describe what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it? Are there any artefacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton?
Solution
The image shows a Harappan burial site where archaeological excavation is in progress.
- Description: The central feature is a human skeleton lying within a rectangular pit dug into the earth. The skeleton appears to be that of an adult.
- Placement of the Body: The body is placed in an extended position, lying on its back. This was a common practice in Harappan burials.
- Objects Placed Near It: Several earthenware pots and jars are placed in the pit, mostly near the head of the skeleton. These are grave goods, perhaps containing food and water for the deceased in the afterlife.
- Artefacts on the Body: In this specific photograph, there are no clearly visible artefacts like rings, bangles, or necklaces on the body of the skeleton itself.
- Indication of Sex: The presence of grave goods like pottery does not indicate the sex of the skeleton, as they have been found in burials of both men and women. While the chapter mentions that jewellery has been found in burials of both sexes, none is visible here. Determining the sex of the skeleton would require a detailed anatomical analysis of the bones (such as the pelvis and skull) by a specialist, which is not possible from the photograph alone.
Q10MAP WORK
On Map 1, use a pencil to circle sites where evidence of agriculture has been recovered. Mark an X against sites where there is evidence of craft production and R against sites where raw materials were found.
Solution
To complete this map work activity based on the chapter, you should mark the sites on Map 1 as follows:
Sites with Evidence of Agriculture (Circle):
- Kalibangan (Rajasthan): Circle this site, as the text explicitly mentions the discovery of a ploughed field from the Early Harappan levels here.
- Harappa and Mohenjodaro: Circle these major cities, as finds of various grains like wheat and barley indicate the prevalence of agriculture.
- Sites in Gujarat (e.g., Lothal, Dholavira): Circle these sites, as the text notes that millets were found in Gujarat.
Sites with Evidence of Craft Production (Mark with an X):
- Chanhudaro: Mark with an X. The text describes it as a tiny settlement almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, and metal-working.
- Lothal: Mark with an X. It was a centre for making beads and where specialised drills have been found.
- Nageshwar and Balakot: Mark both with an X. They were specialised centres for making shell objects like bangles and ladles.
- Dholavira: Mark with an X, as specialised drills for bead-making were found here.
- Mohenjodaro and Harappa: Mark both with an X. The text states that craft production was also undertaken in large cities.
Sites where Raw Materials were Found (Mark with an R):
- Nageshwar and Balakot: Mark both with an R, as they were located in areas where shell was available.
- Shortughai (Afghanistan): Mark with an R. This site was established near the best source of lapis lazuli.
- Lothal (Gujarat): Mark with an R, as it was near sources of carnelian, steatite, and metal.
- Khetri region (Rajasthan): Although not a specific site on the map, this region should be identified and marked with an R for copper.
- South India: This region should be identified and marked with an R for gold.
Q11PROJECT (ANY ONE)
Find out if there are any museums in your town. Visit one of them and write a report on any ten items, describing how old they are, where they were found, and why you think they are on display.
Solution
This project requires a visit to a local museum to observe and report on artefacts. Here is a step-by-step guide to completing it:
Step 1: Locate a Museum
- Search online or ask your teacher for information about museums in your city or a nearby one. This could be a national museum, a state museum, or a local archaeological museum.
Step 2: Visit the Museum and Select Items
- During your visit, carefully observe the exhibits. Choose ten items that interest you. Try to select a variety of objects, such as pottery, tools, sculptures, coins, jewellery, or manuscripts.
Step 3: Gather Information for Each Item
- For each of the ten items, look for the information plaque displayed next to it. Note down the following details:
- Name of the Object: (e.g., Terracotta Figurine, Copper Sword, Silver Punch-marked Coin).
- Age/Period: (e.g., c. 2500 BCE, Mauryan Period, Gupta Period).
- Location of Discovery: (e.g., Mohenjodaro, Sarnath, Taxila).
- Material: (e.g., Clay, Bronze, Stone, Gold).
Step 4: Write Your Report
- Structure your report with an introduction, a section for each item, and a conclusion.
- Introduction: Briefly introduce the museum you visited and the general focus of its collection.
- Body Paragraphs (One for each item): For each of the ten items, present the information you collected. Then, add your own analysis of why you think it is on display. Consider its significance:
- Does it represent a high level of craftsmanship or technology for its time?
- Does it tell us about the daily life, economy, or religious beliefs of the people who made it?
- Is it rare or unique?
- Is it a good example of the art style of a particular period?
- Conclusion: Summarise what you learned from your visit and how looking at these objects helped you understand the past better.
Example for one item:
- Item: The 'Priest-King' Statue (replica, if original is not there).
- Age: Mature Harappan Period (c. 2600-1900 BCE).
- Found at: Mohenjodaro.
- Why it is on display: This steatite statue is one of the most famous artefacts from the Indus Valley Civilisation. It is on display because it provides a rare glimpse into the possible appearance and attire of an important individual from that society. The detailed carving of the trefoil-patterned robe and the headband shows advanced artistic skill. It also sparks debate about the nature of Harappan leadership—was he a king, a priest, or both?
Q12PROJECT (ANY ONE)
Collect illustrations of ten things made of stone, metal and clay produced and used at present. Compare these with the pictures of the Harappan civilisation in this chapter, and discuss the similarities and differences that you find.
Solution
This project involves comparing modern objects with Harappan artefacts to understand continuity and change in technology and daily life. Here is a guide to help you structure your work.
Step 1: Collect Illustrations
- Find pictures (from magazines, newspapers, or the internet) of ten modern items made of stone, metal, and clay. For example:
- Stone: A granite kitchen countertop, a marble statue, stone grinding mortar (sil-batta).
- Metal: A stainless steel pot, a copper wire, an iron axe.
- Clay: A ceramic cup, a terracotta flower pot, modern bricks.
Step 2: Find Corresponding Harappan Artefacts
- Look through the images in this chapter (e.g., saddle querns, pottery, copper tools, beads, bricks) and find a Harappan equivalent for each of your modern items, or a similar category of object.
Step 3: Compare and Discuss Similarities and Differences
- Create a comparative analysis. You can organize it by material. For each pair of objects (modern vs. Harappan), discuss the following points:
1. Clay Objects:
- Comparison: Modern ceramic cup vs. Harappan pottery (Fig 1.14).
- Similarities: Both are made from clay and fired to become hard. Both are used for holding liquids or food. The basic concept of pottery remains the same.
- Differences: Modern cups are often mass-produced by machine, have a smooth glaze, and come in countless designs. Harappan pottery was handmade on a potter's wheel, often decorated with geometric or natural motifs, and had a more functional, less refined finish.
2. Stone Objects:
- Comparison: Modern electric grinder vs. Harappan saddle quern (Source 1).
- Similarities: The fundamental purpose is the same: to grind cereals and spices.
- Differences: The Harappan quern was a manual tool made of two stones, requiring significant physical labour. The modern grinder is an electric appliance, highly efficient and fast. This shows a massive leap in technology, from manual power to electricity.
3. Metal Objects:
- Comparison: Modern steel axe vs. Harappan copper/bronze tools.
- Similarities: Both are tools used for cutting or shaping materials like wood. The basic design of a blade attached to a handle is similar.
- Differences: Modern axes are made of steel, which is much harder and more durable than the copper or bronze used by Harappans. They are mass-produced with precision. Harappan metal tools were rarer and more valuable, representing a significant technological achievement for their time.
Conclusion:
- Summarise your findings. Note that while many basic human needs (cooking, building, cutting) and materials (clay, stone, metal) have remained the same, the technology used to shape and use these materials has undergone a dramatic transformation, leading to greater efficiency, mass production, and a wider variety of forms and functions.
Q6Write A Short essay (about 500 WORDS) ON THE FOLLOWING:
Describe some of the distinctive features of Mohenjodaro.
Solution
Mohenjodaro, the most well-known Harappan site, stands out as a remarkable example of a planned urban centre and showcases some of the most distinctive features of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Perhaps its most unique feature is its planned layout. The city is divided into two distinct sections: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel, built on a raised mud-brick platform, was smaller and higher. It was walled and physically separated from the Lower Town. It housed structures of public importance, such as the Great Bath and the warehouse. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank made watertight with gypsum mortar, surrounded by a corridor and rooms. Scholars believe it was used for special ritual baths. The warehouse was a massive structure whose lower brick portions survive, suggesting a system for storing grains or goods.
The Lower Town was much larger and also walled. Residential buildings here were systematically laid out. The streets were arranged in a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. This suggests that the city was planned before it was built. Houses were typically built around a courtyard, which was the centre of activities like cooking and weaving. A notable feature of domestic architecture was a concern for privacy; houses had no windows on the ground floor walls, and the main entrance did not offer a direct view of the interior. Each house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected to the main street drains. Many houses also had wells, some accessible to passers-by.
One of the most impressive aspects of Mohenjodaro was its sophisticated drainage system. It was carefully planned, with drains laid out before the houses were constructed. These covered drains, made of mortared bricks, ran along the streets and were equipped with sumps and removable covers for cleaning. This advanced system of sanitation was a hallmark of Harappan urban planning.
Finally, the use of standardised materials is another key feature. Bricks, whether sun-dried or baked, had a uniform ratio of length being four times the height and breadth being twice the height. This standardisation across Mohenjodaro and other Harappan sites points to a strong, organised authority.
Q7Write A Short essay (about 500 WORDS) ON THE FOLLOWING:
List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
Solution
Craft production was a vital economic activity in the Harappan Civilisation, and it required a diverse range of raw materials sourced both locally and from distant regions.
Raw Materials Required:
- Clay: Used for pottery, terracotta figurines, and bricks. This was locally available in the alluvial plains.
- Stone: A variety of stones were used, including carnelian (from Gujarat), lapis lazuli (a highly valued blue stone), steatite (from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat), quartz, and crystal.
- Metals: Copper (from Rajasthan and Oman), gold (from south India), and bronze (an alloy of copper and tin).
- Shell: Used for making bangles, ladles, and inlay. It was sourced from coastal settlements.
- Timber: Used for construction and other purposes.
Methods of Procurement:
The Harappans employed several strategies to obtain these materials:
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Establishing Settlements near Raw Material Sources: They established specialised settlements in areas where specific materials were available. For example, Nageshwar and Balakot were set up in coastal areas to procure shell. Similarly, Shortughai was established in far-off Afghanistan, near the best source of lapis lazuli. Lothal, located in Gujarat, was near sources of carnelian, steatite, and metal.
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Sending Expeditions: Another strategy was to send expeditions to resource-rich regions to acquire materials and establish communication with local communities. Expeditions were likely sent to the Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and to south India for gold. The presence of Harappan artefacts like steatite micro beads in these areas suggests such contact.
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Trade with Distant Lands: Recent archaeological evidence suggests long-distance trade networks. Copper was probably brought from Oman on the Arabian peninsula. Chemical analyses show traces of nickel in both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts, indicating a common origin. Mesopotamian texts from the third millennium BCE mention contact with a region called Meluhha, believed to be the Harappan region. They record the import of goods like carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and wood from Meluhha. This trade was likely conducted via sea routes, as indicated by depictions of ships and boats on Harappan seals.
Q8Write A Short essay (about 500 WORDS) ON THE FOLLOWING:
Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past.
Solution
Archaeologists reconstruct the past by systematically studying material remains left behind by ancient cultures. Since the Harappan script remains undeciphered, this material evidence—such as pottery, tools, buildings, and seals—is the primary source for understanding their civilisation.
The process begins with the recovery of artefacts through excavation. Archaeologists carefully document the context in which an object is found, particularly its stratigraphic layer, as this helps in dating and establishing a cultural sequence. Once recovered, artefacts are classified. A simple classification is by material (stone, clay, metal, bone). A more complex classification is by function (tool, ornament, ritual object). Function is often inferred by its resemblance to modern objects (e.g., pots, querns) or by analysing the context of its discovery (e.g., an item found in a kiln was likely related to craft production).
To reconstruct aspects of life, archaeologists use various analytical methods. For instance, dietary practices are reconstructed by studying charred grains and seeds (archaeo-botany) and animal bones (archaeo-zoology). Agricultural technologies are inferred from finds like terracotta plough models and evidence of ploughed fields.
Social and economic differences are traced by studying burials (variations in pit construction, presence of grave goods) and the distribution of artefacts. Objects are categorised as utilitarian or luxury based on their material and rarity, and their distribution helps identify social hierarchies.
Reconstructing religious beliefs is more challenging and often speculative. Archaeologists identify unusual objects, such as terracotta female figurines (interpreted as mother goddesses) or unique structures like the Great Bath (seen as having ritual significance), and infer their purpose. They often draw parallels with later traditions, moving from the known (present) to the unknown (past). For example, a seal depicting a seated figure surrounded by animals has been interpreted as a 'proto-Shiva', comparing it to later Hindu iconography. However, such interpretations are subject to debate and revision.
Ultimately, archaeologists piece together these different lines of evidence to build a comprehensive picture of the past, constantly revising their interpretations as new evidence emerges or new analytical techniques are developed.
Q9Write A Short essay (about 500 WORDS) ON THE FOLLOWING:
Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
Solution
While archaeological records from the Harappan civilisation provide no direct evidence of rulers—such as palaces, royal burials, or depictions of kings—the complexity and organisation of the society strongly suggest the existence of a central authority or state. The functions performed by this ruling body would have been extensive and crucial for the functioning of the civilisation.
One of the primary functions would have been planning and establishing settlements. The remarkable consistency in town planning, particularly in cities like Mohenjodaro with its grid-like street layout, sophisticated drainage system, and distinct zones like the Citadel and Lower Town, points to a centralised decision-making body. Such complex urban infrastructure could not have emerged without a guiding authority.
Another key function was the mobilisation of labour on a massive scale. The construction of enormous mud-brick platforms for city foundations, massive walls, and large public structures like the Great Bath and warehouses would have required organising and managing a large workforce. The text calculates that building the foundations alone would have needed four million person-days of labour, an undertaking that implies a powerful organising entity.
Standardisation across the vast geographical extent of the civilisation was likely another function of the rulers. The extraordinary uniformity in artefacts such as pottery, seals, and weights, and most notably, the standardised ratio of bricks used in construction from Jammu to Gujarat, suggests a regulatory authority that enforced these standards to facilitate trade and construction.
Furthermore, the rulers would have been responsible for procuring raw materials. Organising expeditions to distant areas like the Khetri region for copper and South India for gold, or establishing settlements like Shortughai near sources of lapis lazuli, required significant planning and resources. They would also have managed long-distance trade with regions like Mesopotamia and Oman, ensuring the flow of essential and luxury goods.
Finally, it is possible that the rulers performed ritual or religious functions. The presence of large public structures on the Citadel, such as the Great Bath, suggests they may have been used for special rituals, possibly led or patronised by the ruling elite. While the exact nature of Harappan polity—whether a single state, multiple rulers, or a collective body—remains debated, the evidence points to a complex authority that performed these essential functions to maintain the integrity and prosperity of the civilisation.