Key Points

In the 1830s, James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. This breakthrough allowed historians to read early inscriptions and reconstruct the history of dynasties like the Mauryas.

Early inscriptions referred to a king named Piyadassi, meaning 'pleasant to behold'. He was later identified as the great Mauryan ruler Asoka, who is also mentioned in Buddhist texts.

The sixth century BCE is associated with the rise of sixteen large states or 'mahajanapadas'. The most important among these were Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti.

Between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE, Magadha emerged as the most powerful mahajanapada. Its success was due to factors like fertile agriculture, iron mines, forest elephants, and strategic river routes.

Founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 321 BCE, the Mauryan Empire was the first pan-Indian empire. Its most famous ruler was Asoka, known for his conquest of Kalinga and subsequent promotion of dhamma.

Key sources for reconstructing Mauryan history include the account of the Greek ambassador Megasthenes, the Arthashastra attributed to Kautilya, and Asoka's inscriptions on rocks and pillars.

Asoka promoted 'dhamma', a moral code emphasizing respect for elders, religious tolerance, and kindness to all. He appointed special officials called 'dhamma mahamattas' to spread this message.

The empire was administered from five major political centers: the capital Pataliputra, and provincial centers at Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri, connected by vital land and riverine routes.

After the Mauryan period, some kings claimed divine status. The Kushana rulers, for example, adopted the title 'devaputra' (son of god) and installed colossal statues of themselves.

The history of the Gupta Empire is reconstructed from sources like coins, literature, and 'prashastis' (inscriptions praising kings). The Prayaga Prashasti is a famous example, detailing the achievements of Samudragupta.

Agricultural productivity increased through the adoption of the iron-tipped ploughshare in fertile river valleys and the introduction of paddy transplantation. Irrigation via wells, tanks, and canals also became more common.

Growing agricultural production led to social differentiation in rural areas. Texts mention categories like large landowners (vellalar), ploughmen (uzhavar), and slaves (adimai), indicating unequal access to resources.

From the early centuries CE, there is evidence of land grants ('agrahara'), often made to Brahmanas and recorded on copper plates. This practice created new rural elites and helped extend agriculture to new areas.

Many new cities emerged as centers of craft, trade, and political activity. Craft producers and merchants often organized themselves into guilds or 'shrenis' which regulated production and trade.

Trade flourished within the subcontinent and extended overseas to Central Asia, West Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Roman Empire. Spices, textiles, and precious stones were key items of trade.

Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage. The earliest were punch-marked coins, followed by coins of Indo-Greeks bearing names of rulers, and gold coins issued by the Kushanas and Guptas.

While inscriptions are a valuable source, they have limitations. They may be damaged, their meaning can be uncertain, and they usually reflect the perspective of the elite, ignoring the lives of ordinary people.