Key Points

The chapter focuses on the period between c. 600 BCE and 600 CE, a time of significant intellectual and religious ferment in India and across the world, marked by thinkers like Buddha and Mahavira.

Sanchi is a key Buddhist site with one of the best-preserved stupas. Its survival and preservation were greatly aided by the rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum, in the 19th century.

The Rigveda (c. 1500-1000 BCE) consists of hymns for deities like Agni and Indra, chanted during sacrifices. Initially collective, these rituals later became more elaborate, such as the rajasuya and ashvamedha performed by kings.

Upanishadic texts (from c. 6th century BCE) show a shift towards philosophical questions about the meaning of life, rebirth, and karma. Thinkers debated the nature of ultimate reality and questioned the efficacy of sacrifices.

The central idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated. Ahimsa (non-injury) to all living beings is its core principle, and liberation from karma is achieved through asceticism and penance.

Vardhamana, known as Mahavira, was the 24th tirthankara (teacher) in the Jaina tradition. Jaina monks and nuns take five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing, lying, to observe celibacy, and to abstain from possessing property.

Siddhartha Gautama, a prince of the Sakya clan, renounced worldly life after witnessing suffering. He attained enlightenment through meditation and became known as the Buddha, teaching the path of righteous living (dhamma).

The Buddha taught that the world is transient (anicca) and soulless (anatta), and that sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to existence. Liberation (nibbana) is attained by extinguishing desire and ego through individual effort.

The Buddha founded the sangha, an organization of monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis). Within the sangha, all were regarded as equal, shedding their former social identities.

The Buddha's teachings were compiled after his death into the Tipitaka (three baskets): the Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules), the Sutta Pitaka (Buddha's teachings), and the Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy).

Stupas were mounds containing relics of the Buddha or objects he used, making them sacred emblems of Buddhism. Their basic structure consists of a semi-circular mound (anda), a balcony (harmika), a mast (yashti), and an umbrella (chhatri).

The stupa at Amaravati was dismantled and its sculptures removed, leaving it a ruin. Sanchi survived because it was discovered later when preservation was valued, and its key structures were still intact.

Early Buddhist art often used symbols to represent the Buddha. The empty seat indicated his meditation, the wheel his first sermon at Sarnath, and the stupa his mahaparinibbana (final passing).

By the first century CE, Mahayana Buddhism emerged, introducing the concept of Bodhisattas – compassionate beings who help others achieve salvation. This new tradition also emphasized the worship of images of the Buddha.

This era also saw the development of Puranic Hinduism, including Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu and his avatars) and Shaivism (worship of Shiva). These traditions emphasized bhakti, or devotion to a chosen deity.

The first temples were small, square rooms called the garbhagriha, which housed the main deity's image. Over time, a tall structure known as the shikhara was built over the garbhagriha, and temples grew more complex.