Thinkers, Beliefs and BuildingsClass 12 History NCERT Solutions

Yes, the ideas of Upanishadic thinkers were significantly different from those of the fatalists and materialists.

Upanishadic Thinkers: As seen in texts like the Chhandogya Upanishad, these thinkers were deeply curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death, and rebirth. They explored concepts like the ultimate reality and the nature of the self (atman). A central idea was that rebirth was influenced by one's past actions (karma), implying that individual agency was crucial for one's spiritual destiny.

Fatalists (Ajivikas): In stark contrast, fatalists like Makkhali Gosala believed that everything was predetermined. They argued that pleasure and pain were measured out and could not be altered by human action, virtue, or penance. For them, every being's course was fixed, and individual effort was futile.

Materialists (Lokayatas): Materialists such as Ajita Kesakambalin rejected metaphysical concepts entirely. They denied the existence of an afterlife, rebirth, or the efficacy of sacrifices and offerings. They taught that a human being was simply made of the four elements and perished completely upon death.

Thus, the key difference lies in their views on the soul, rebirth, and the role of human action. Upanishadic thinkers affirmed all three, while fatalists denied the role of action, and materialists denied the existence of a soul and rebirth altogether.

The central teachings of Jainism, which existed in north India even before Mahavira, are based on a distinct philosophy of existence and liberation.

The Begums of Bhopal played a crucial role in the preservation of the great stupa at Sanchi, ensuring its survival when many other ancient sites were lost. Their contributions were both financial and diplomatic.

Firstly, rulers Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum made wise decisions that protected the monument. In the nineteenth century, when Europeans, particularly the French and the English, sought permission to take away the best-preserved eastern gateway to museums in Europe, the Begums skillfully negotiated. Instead of allowing the original to be removed, they satisfied the Europeans with carefully prepared plaster-cast copies. This decision was vital in keeping the original structure intact at the site.

Secondly, they provided significant financial support for the site's upkeep and study. They provided money for the preservation of the ancient site. Sultan Jehan Begum funded the construction of the museum at Sanchi and a guesthouse where archaeologist John Marshall lived while he studied the site and wrote his important volumes. She also funded the publication of these volumes. The text explicitly states that the survival of the stupa complex is in no small measure due to their wise decisions and patronage.

(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription? Dhanavati dated her inscription by referring to the regnal year of the ruling king. She specified it was "in the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka," a Kushana ruler. She further specified the time of year as "in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day."

(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta? By the first century CE, Mahayana Buddhism was developing, which included the idea of Bodhisattas as compassionate saviour beings. Dhanavati, a Buddhist nun (bhikkhuni), likely installed the image as an act of devotion. This was a way to accumulate merit for herself and her family, reflecting the new Mahayana belief in Bodhisattas who could help others achieve salvation.

(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned? She mentioned her aunt (her mother's sister), the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, and also her father and mother, with whom she set up the image.

(d) What Buddhist text did she know? The inscription states that her aunt, Buddhamita, and her teacher, Bala, were knowledgeable in the Tipitaka. As she was the pupil of Bala, it is strongly implied that she was studying the Tipitaka herself.

(e) From whom did she learn this text? She learned this text from her teacher, the bhikkhu Bala. The inscription explicitly identifies her as "the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka."

Men and women joined the Buddhist sangha for a variety of social and spiritual reasons, as it offered a compelling alternative to the prevailing Brahmanical traditions.

On an outline map of Asia, the spread of Buddhism from the Indian subcontinent can be marked and traced as follows:

Yes, Hinduism, one of the religious traditions discussed in the chapter, is widely practiced in my neighborhood.

Religious Texts: The religious texts used today include the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and most prominently, the Bhagavad Gita. These texts are preserved in multiple forms. They exist as printed books, available in countless languages and interpretations. They are also preserved digitally as e-books, audiobooks, and online resources. Transmission occurs through various means: families pass down stories and teachings orally, religious scholars and gurus give discourses (pravachans), and the texts are formally studied in religious institutions. Many hymns and verses are recited daily in homes and temples.

Use of Images: Images are central to worship in modern Hinduism. Devotees worship murtis (idols) of various deities like Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Ganesha, and Krishna. These are similar to the early sculptures described in the chapter in that they represent deities with specific attributes, ornaments, and weapons (ayudhas) to signify their powers. However, they are also different. Modern murtis are often made from a wider variety of materials, including marble and metal alloys, and may feature more elaborate and colourful decorations than ancient stone sculptures.

Religious Buildings: The primary building for religious activities is the temple (mandir). Modern temples share a basic structure with the early temples described. They have a central shrine, the garbhagriha, which houses the main deity's image. They also have a tall shikhara built over the garbhagriha. However, modern temples are often much larger and more complex. They typically include large assembly halls (mandapas) for devotees to gather for prayers, kirtan, and discourses. Many modern temple complexes also have additional facilities like community kitchens, libraries, and living quarters for priests, which were not features of the earliest temples. Unlike the solid mound structure of a stupa, which was meant for circumambulation, a temple is a structure meant to be entered for direct worship of the deity within.

Objective: To understand how people without specialized knowledge of art history or religious traditions interpret sculptures and paintings from early India.

Conclusion: The findings indicate that while laypersons can identify general elements in religious art—such as emotion, action, and status—they often miss the specific narrative and symbolic meanings. Concrete representations (like the meditating Tirthankara) were easier to interpret than complex mythological scenes (Varaha) or abstract symbols (the empty seat). This project underscores the importance of historical and textual knowledge, as discussed in the chapter, for a full appreciation of ancient religious art.

Knowledge of Buddhist literature is indispensable for a comprehensive understanding of the sculpture at Sanchi. The stone carvings on the stupa's gateways and railings are not merely decorative; they are rich with narrative and symbolic meaning that can only be fully decoded by referencing Buddhist texts such as the Jatakas and hagiographies of the Buddha. Without this literary context, the sculptures would remain largely unintelligible.

One of the most significant roles of Buddhist literature is in identifying the narrative scenes depicted. Many panels at Sanchi illustrate stories from the Jatakas, which are tales of the Buddha's previous lives. For instance, art historians have identified a scene on the northern gateway as a depiction of the Vessantara Jataka. This story tells of a generous prince who gave away everything he owned. To a viewer unfamiliar with the text, the sculpture would simply appear to be a rural scene with thatched huts and trees. However, knowledge of the Jataka tale transforms it into a moral lesson on generosity, a key Buddhist virtue.

Furthermore, Buddhist literature is crucial for interpreting the complex symbolism used in early Buddhist art. Early sculptors at Sanchi avoided depicting the Buddha in human form, instead representing his presence through symbols. Understanding these symbols requires familiarity with the hagiographies that detail the events of his life. The empty seat under a tree symbolizes the Buddha's meditation and enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. The wheel represents his first sermon at Sarnath, where he set the 'wheel of dharma' in motion. The stupa motif itself represents the mahaparinibbana, or the Buddha's final passing. Without the stories of his life, these symbols would lose their profound religious significance.

However, it is also important to recognize the limits of Buddhist literature in explaining every image at Sanchi. The site's art was also enriched by pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist beliefs, practices, and ideas. The recurring motif of a beautiful woman swinging from a gateway, the shalabhanjika, is not explained by core Buddhist texts but by other literary traditions that identify her as an auspicious symbol of fertility. Similarly, depictions of animals like elephants and serpents, or figures like Gajalakshmi (goddess of good fortune), suggest the integration of popular traditions of tree, animal, and serpent worship. Art historian James Fergusson, unfamiliar with Buddhist texts, initially concluded Sanchi was a centre for such worship based solely on these images.

In conclusion, while Buddhist literature provides the essential key to unlock the primary narratives and symbols of the sculptures at Sanchi, a complete understanding also requires an appreciation of the wider cultural context. The art of Sanchi is a synthesis of Buddhist teachings and popular beliefs, and knowledge of various literary and folk traditions is necessary to appreciate its full richness.

The rise of Puranic Hinduism, particularly the traditions of Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu) and Shaivism (worship of Shiva), spurred significant developments in religious sculpture and architecture from the middle of the first millennium CE. This period saw the creation of a rich visual culture centered on temples and the iconic representation of deities.

Developments in Sculpture: Sculpture became a primary medium for expressing the complex ideas and narratives associated with these traditions.

To understand these sculptures, one must be familiar with the stories from the Puranas. The deities were depicted with specific headdresses, ornaments, and ayudhas (weapons or auspicious objects), all of which were symbolic of their powers and attributes.

Developments in Architecture: The need to house the images of these gods and goddesses led to the construction of the first temples.

Stupas are among the most significant architectural forms associated with early Buddhism. Their construction was driven by specific religious beliefs, and their building process involved a wide cross-section of society.

Why Stupas Were Built: The primary reason for building stupas was to enshrine sacred relics. According to Buddhist tradition, after the Buddha's death, his bodily remains and the objects he used were considered sacred. Mounds were erected over these relics, and these structures came to be known as stupas.

How Stupas Were Built: Stupas were built through collective effort and patronage, as recorded in inscriptions found on their railings and pillars.