Key Points

Travellers' accounts are valuable historical sources because they often recorded everyday practices and social norms that local writers considered too routine to mention. Their outsider perspective provides unique insights into the society of the time.

Al-Biruni, from 11th-century Uzbekistan, wrote the Kitab-ul-Hind in Arabic. This voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters, was a detailed account of Indian religion, philosophy, society, and sciences.

Al-Biruni identified three main barriers to understanding India: the difficulty of the Sanskrit language, the difference in religious beliefs and practices, and the insularity of the local population.

He tried to understand the caste system by comparing it with social hierarchies in ancient Persia. However, he disapproved of the Brahmanical notion of pollution, arguing it was contrary to the laws of nature.

The 14th-century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta wrote the 'Rihla'. He believed that knowledge gained from travel was more important than knowledge from books, which motivated his extensive journeys.

Ibn Battuta described Indian cities like Delhi and Daulatabad as vast, prosperous, and full of opportunities. He noted their crowded streets, vibrant and colorful markets, and impressive architecture.

To make his accounts engaging, Ibn Battuta meticulously described things unfamiliar to his audience. His detailed descriptions of the coconut, which he compared to a man's head, and the paan are prime examples.

Ibn Battuta was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system, which had two types: the horse-post (uluq) and the more rapid foot-post (dawa). This system allowed news to travel from Sind to Delhi in just five days.

Francois Bernier, a 17th-century French doctor, wrote accounts that constantly compared Mughal India with Europe. He framed India in a model of binary opposition, generally emphasizing the superiority of Europe.

Bernier argued that the absence of private property in land was the key cause of India's decline. He believed crown ownership of land discouraged investment and led to the oppression of the peasantry.

Bernier's writings influenced Western thinkers like Montesquieu, who developed the idea of 'oriental despotism'. Karl Marx later used these ideas to formulate the concept of the 'Asiatic mode of production'.

Bernier described Indian society as consisting of only a small, rich ruling class and a large mass of impoverished people. He famously asserted, 'There is no middle state in India.'

He described Mughal cities as 'camp towns,' suggesting they were dependent on the imperial court for their existence and would decline once the court moved away. This was an oversimplified view of urban life.

Ibn Battuta's account provides evidence for the practice of slavery. Slaves were openly sold in markets, exchanged as gifts, and used for domestic labor, with some female slaves also employed for music and espionage.

European travellers like Bernier often highlighted the practice of sati as a crucial marker of difference between 'East' and 'West'. He provided a detailed and emotional description of a young widow being burnt alive.