Chapter Notes

What Is Social About Social Inequality and Exclusion?

Social inequality and exclusion are not about individual differences in talent or effort; they are systematic and structured patterns created by society. They are considered 'social' for three main reasons:

1. They concern groups of people, not just individuals.
2. They are not purely economic, although they are closely linked to economic disparities.
3. They are systematic and structured, meaning there is a clear pattern to the inequality.

Social Inequality

Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of valued resources like money, property, education, health, and power within a society. These resources can be understood as three forms of capital:

• Economic Capital: Material assets and income.
• Cultural Capital: Educational qualifications and social status.
• Social Capital: Networks of contacts and social associations.

Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. This ranking affects people's identities, experiences, and access to opportunities.

1. It is a characteristic of society, not individuals. Society-wide systems distribute resources unequally, regardless of individual abilities.
2. It persists over generations. Social position is often ascribed (passed down from parents to children), as seen in the caste system. This is reinforced by endogamy, the practice of marrying within the same caste.
3. It is supported by beliefs or ideology. Systems of inequality, like the caste system, are often justified by widely held beliefs (e.g., purity and pollution) that make them seem fair or inevitable.

Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination

Social inequality is not just about money. People also face exclusion based on their gender, religion, ethnicity, caste, or disability. This often stems from prejudice.

• Prejudice: Refers to pre-conceived opinions or attitudes held by one group toward another. It is a 'pre-judgement' often based on hearsay rather than direct evidence and is resistant to change.
• Stereotypes: These are fixed and inflexible characterizations of a group of people. Stereotypes ignore individual variations and treat an entire community as a single, homogenous entity. In India, many stereotypes were created during the colonial period, such as labeling certain communities as 'martial races'.
• Discrimination: This refers to the actual behavior or practices that disadvantage one group. It involves actions that deny opportunities to certain people based on their social identity.

Social Exclusion

Social exclusion is the process through which individuals or groups are cut off from full participation in the wider society. It is not accidental but a systematic result of social structures. It prevents people from accessing essential goods and services needed for a full life, such as:

• Education and health
• Transportation and banking
• Social security and justice systems (police, judiciary)

Transgender and Third Gender

The chapter also recognizes other excluded groups, including:

• Transgender: Refers to individuals whose gender identity can be changed, often through surgical procedures. It acknowledges that gender can be a matter of choice.
• Third Gender: A social category for people who are neither male nor female, or who may have alternates of both genders. In India, third gender persons have gained legal recognition, including the right to contest elections.

Caste and Tribe - Systems Justifying and Perpetuating Inequality

In modern India, while the direct link between caste and occupation has weakened, the overall correlation between caste and economic status remains strong. Privileged sections of society are still dominated by 'upper' castes, while disadvantaged sections are overwhelmingly composed of 'lower' castes.

Untouchability

Untouchability is an extreme and vicious aspect of the caste system based on the idea of purity and pollution. It involves severe social sanctions against castes at the bottom of the hierarchy. The key dimensions of untouchability are:

• Exclusion: Dalits face unique forms of exclusion, such as being barred from sharing water sources or participating in collective religious worship.
• Humiliation-Subordination: It involves acts intended to demean and subordinate individuals.
• Exploitation: This often takes the form of forced, unpaid, or under-paid labor.

The term 'Dalit', meaning 'downtrodden', is now the generally accepted term for the ex-untouchable communities. It was popularized by the Dalit Panthers in the 1970s and signifies a struggle for rights and dignity.

State and Non-State Initiatives Addressing Caste and Tribe Discrimination

The Indian state has implemented several policies to address caste and tribe discrimination.

• Reservations: This is the most significant policy, setting aside seats for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in legislatures, government jobs, and educational institutions.
• Legislation: Key laws have been passed to combat discrimination:
  1. Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850: Allowed Dalits entry into government schools.
  2. The Constitution of India (1950): Article 17 abolished untouchability.
  3. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989: Strengthened legal provisions against violence and humiliation towards Dalits and Adivasis.

Beyond state action, Dalits have organized politically and culturally, from pre-independence movements led by figures like Jyotiba Phule and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to contemporary political parties and literary movements.

The Other Backward Classes

The Other Backward Classes (OBCs) are groups identified in the Constitution as 'socially and educationally backward classes' who are distinct from the SCs and STs.

• They are a very diverse group, including service and artisanal castes.
• The First Backward Classes Commission (Kaka Kalelkar Commission) submitted its report in 1953 but it was sidelined.
• The Second Backward Classes Commission (B.P. Mandal Commission) was appointed in the late 1970s. Its report was implemented in 1990, making the OBC issue a major part of national politics.
• The OBCs are a large and politically influential group (about 41% of the population), but they are severely under-represented in most spheres except for landholding and political representation. There are large disparities between the landed 'upper' OBCs and the very poor 'lower' OBCs.

Adivasi Struggles

Adivasis, meaning 'original inhabitants', are communities historically associated with forest and hill areas.

• Historical Exploitation: Colonial forest policies severed Adivasis' rights to forest resources, which was the mainstay of their livelihood.
• Post-Independence Displacement: After 1947, the government's focus on industrialization led to the acquisition of Adivasi lands for mining and dam projects (e.g., Sardar Sarovar dam, Polavaram dam). This process, termed internal colonialism, displaced millions without proper compensation.
• Political Assertion: The term Adivasi signifies political awareness and a shared experience of losing land and forests. Adivasi movements have led to significant achievements, such as the creation of the states of Jharkhand and Chattisgarh.

Struggle for Women's Equality and Rights

Gender inequality is a social construct, not a natural or biological one. The existence of matrilineal societies, like the Khasis of Meghalaya, demonstrates that social structures, not biology, define gender roles.

The "women's question" in India emerged during the nineteenth-century social reform movements.

• Male Reformers:
  • Raja Rammohun Roy led the campaign against sati in Bengal.
  • M.G. Ranade worked for widow remarriage in the Bombay Presidency.
  • Jyotiba Phule attacked both caste and gender oppression.
  • Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advocated for the education of Muslim girls, albeit within their homes.
• Women's Voices: It is incorrect to assume that only men fought for women's rights.
  • Tarabai Shinde wrote Stree Purush Tulana (1882), a powerful protest against the double standards of patriarchal society.
  • Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain wrote Sultana's Dream (1905), an early work of science fiction that imagined a world with reversed gender roles.

During the freedom struggle, women's rights became a key part of the nationalist vision. The Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress in 1931 passed a declaration committing to women's equality, including the right to vote and hold public office.

In the 1970s, the women's movement re-emerged with a focus on 'modern' issues like the representation of women in media and gender-based consequences of development. Today, new challenges like the declining child sex ratio highlight ongoing gender injustice.

The Struggles of the Disabled

The term "differently abled" highlights that people are not disabled solely by their physical or mental impairments but by a society that fails to accommodate their needs.

Common perceptions of disability often view it as:

• A biological given.
• A personal problem or tragedy.
• A result of fate or past karma.
• Something that makes the individual a victim in need of help.

The disability rights movement challenges these views, arguing that disability is a social construction.

• It is society's failure to provide access—through inaccessible buildings, education systems, and employment opportunities—that truly 'disables' people.
• There is a strong link between disability and poverty. Poverty can cause disability through malnutrition and lack of healthcare, while disability can worsen poverty by creating economic strain and social isolation.

Efforts by disabled people themselves have led to increased awareness and government action. However, challenges remain, particularly in the educational system, which often marginalizes disabled students by keeping them in separate streams.