India’s external relationsClass 12 Politics in India Since Independence NCERT Solutions
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Q1Exercises
Write 'true' or 'false' against each of these statements.
(a)
Non-alignment allowed India to gain assistance both from USA and USSR.
(b)
India's relationship with her neighbours has been strained from the beginning.
(c)
The cold war has affected the relationship between India and Pakistan.
(d)
The treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1971 was the result of India's closeness to USA.
Solution
(a) True. The chapter states that by taking an independent stand, India "could get aid and assistance from members of both the blocs."
(b) False. While India's relationship with Pakistan was strained from the start due to the Kashmir dispute, the chapter mentions that "free India began its relationship with China on a very friendly note."
(c) True. The Cold War led to the division of the world into two camps. Pakistan joined the US-led military alliances, which caused unease in Indo-US relations and directly impacted the dynamic between India and Pakistan.
(d) False. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship in August 1971 was signed between India and the Soviet Union, not the USA. It was a strategic move to counter the US-Pakistan-China axis that had formed.
Q2Exercises
Match the following
(a)
The goal of India's foreign policy in the period 1950-1964
(b)
Panchsheel
(c)
Bandung Conference
(d)
Dalai Lama
i. Tibetan spiritual leader who crossed over to India
ii. Preservation of territorial integrity, sovereignty and economic development
iii. Five principles of peaceful coexistence
iv. Led to the establishment of NAM
Solution
(a) The goal of India's foreign policy in the period 1950-1964 — ii. Preservation of territorial integrity, sovereignty and economic development
(b) Panchsheel — iii. Five principles of peaceful coexistence
(c) Bandung Conference — iv. Led to the establishment of NAM
(d) Dalai Lama — i. Tibetan spiritual leader who crossed over to India
Q3Exercises
Why did Nehru regard conduct of foreign relations as an essential indicator of independence? State any two reasons with examples to support your reading.
Solution
Jawaharlal Nehru regarded the conduct of foreign relations as an essential indicator of independence because he believed it was the ultimate test of a nation's sovereignty. According to a quote in the chapter, Nehru stated, "It consists fundamentally and basically of foreign relations. That is the test of independence. All else is local autonomy."
Two key reasons for this belief are:
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Sovereign Decision-Making: The ability to conduct foreign relations independently means a country is not acting under the direction or compulsion of another power. It can formulate its policies based on its own national interests. For example, India's policy of non-alignment was a clear demonstration of its independence, as it refused to join either the US-led or the Soviet-led military blocs, reserving the right to make decisions on international issues on its own terms.
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Global Presence and Influence: An independent foreign policy allows a nation to engage with the world, protect its interests, and contribute to global peace and security. It is the mechanism through which a country projects its identity and values on the international stage. For instance, India's role in convening the Asian Relations Conference in 1947 and the Bandung Conference in 1955 showcased its independence and its desire to create a platform for newly independent nations, free from the influence of colonial powers.
Q4Exercises
"The conduct of foreign affairs is an outcome of a two-way interaction between domestic compulsions and prevailing international climate". Take one example from India's external relations in the 1960s to substantiate your answer.
Solution
The 1962 Sino-Indian War is a clear example of the two-way interaction between domestic compulsions and the prevailing international climate shaping foreign affairs.
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Prevailing International Climate: The early 1960s were the peak of the Cold War. In October 1962, the world's attention was fixated on the Cuban Missile Crisis, a direct confrontation between the USA and the USSR. This global crisis provided China with a window of opportunity to launch its invasion, as the superpowers were preoccupied and unlikely to intervene significantly.
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Domestic Compulsions: India's primary domestic compulsion was to protect its territorial integrity and sovereignty. China was claiming large areas of Indian territory in Ladakh (Aksai-chin) and the North-Eastern Frontier Agency (NEFA). Domestically, there was pressure on the Nehru government to take a firm stand against Chinese claims and border skirmishes.
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Interaction and Outcome: The international distraction allowed China to act on the border dispute, leading to a swift invasion. The war had profound domestic consequences for India. It led to a sense of national humiliation, the resignation of Defence Minister V. K. Krishna Menon, and the first-ever no-confidence motion against the Nehru government. Domestically, it strengthened a spirit of nationalism and forced a major rethink of India's defence preparedness. Externally, it dented India's image and compelled the country, despite its non-aligned policy, to seek military assistance from the US and the UK. This single event demonstrates how international conditions enabled a conflict that was driven by territorial disputes, and the outcome of that conflict, in turn, reshaped both domestic politics and foreign policy orientations.
Q5Exercises
Identify any two aspects of India's foreign policy that you would like to retain and two that you would like to change, if you were to become a decision maker. Give reasons to support your position.
Solution
If I were a decision-maker, I would make the following choices based on the principles and events described in the chapter:
Two Aspects to Retain:
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Strategic Autonomy (Non-Alignment): I would retain the core principle of non-alignment, which in the contemporary world translates to strategic autonomy. The policy of not formally aligning with any single power bloc, as envisioned by Nehru, allowed India to receive aid from both the US and the USSR and maintain an independent stance on global issues. This flexibility is crucial for pursuing national interests without being tied to the agenda of another nation. It allows for building issue-based coalitions and maximizing diplomatic options.
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Commitment to Peaceful Settlement of Disputes: The principle enshrined in Article 51 of the Constitution, which encourages the settlement of international disputes by arbitration, is a noble and practical ideal. As seen with the successful Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 with Pakistan, mediated by the World Bank, this approach can lead to lasting resolutions even between rival nations. Retaining this commitment strengthens India's credentials as a responsible global power and promotes regional stability.
Two Aspects to Change:
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Balance Idealism with Military Preparedness: The 1962 war with China exposed a major weakness in India's early foreign policy: an over-reliance on idealism and a neglect of military preparedness. Nehru’s belief that an attack from China was 'exceedingly unlikely' led to a humiliating defeat. I would change this by ensuring that diplomatic initiatives are always backed by robust military strength. A policy of peace is more effective when a nation has the credible capacity to defend itself against aggression.
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Reduce Economic Insulation: The chapter notes that India's development strategy of import-substitution "limited India's economic interaction with the outside world." While self-reliance is important, excessive economic insulation can limit growth and reduce a country's influence. I would advocate for a more integrated economic foreign policy that emphasizes trade, investment, and technological collaboration, as strong economic ties often create powerful strategic partnerships and enhance national power.
Q6Exercises
Write short notes on the following.
(a)
India's Nuclear policy
(b)
Consensus in foreign policy matters
Solution
(a) India's Nuclear Policy
India's nuclear policy has been guided by a dual objective: using nuclear energy for peaceful purposes while maintaining the option for a credible minimum deterrent. The nuclear programme was initiated in the late 1940s under Homi J. Bhabha with a focus on atomic energy for development. Prime Minister Nehru was a strong advocate for global nuclear disarmament.
However, the international security environment, particularly China's nuclear test in 1964, shifted India's perspective. India considered the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 to be discriminatory, as it legitimized the monopoly of the five existing nuclear powers, and therefore refused to sign it. India conducted its first nuclear test in May 1974, terming it a 'peaceful explosion' and reiterating its commitment to using nuclear power for peaceful purposes. In May 1998, India conducted a series of tests, demonstrating its military nuclear capability. This was followed by the articulation of a nuclear doctrine based on 'credible minimum deterrence' and a 'no first use' policy, while continuing to advocate for global, verifiable, and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament.
(b) Consensus in Foreign Policy Matters
Despite being a vibrant and diverse democracy, Indian politics has generally been marked by a broad consensus on the fundamentals of foreign policy. The chapter notes that there is widespread agreement among political parties on core issues such as national integration, the protection of international boundaries, and the promotion of national interest.
While there have been differences in emphasis—for example, some parties like the Bharatiya Jan Sangh initially advocated for a pro-US policy, while the CPI had its own leanings—the foundational principles have largely remained constant across different governments. The core tenets of non-alignment (or strategic autonomy), commitment to decolonization, and Afro-Asian solidarity, established by Nehru, have been carried forward. Even when non-Congress governments came to power, such as the Janata Party in 1977 which promised 'genuine non-alignment', the basic framework of the foreign policy was not radically altered. This consensus ensures stability and continuity in India's engagement with the world, preventing drastic shifts in policy with every change in government.
Q7Exercises
India's foreign policy was built around the principles of peace and cooperation. But India fought three wars in a space of ten years between 1962 and 1971. Would you say that this was a failure of the foreign policy? Or would you say that this was a result of international situation? Give reasons to support your answer.
Solution
The occurrence of three wars between 1962 and 1971 was not a failure of the intent behind India's foreign policy of peace and cooperation, but rather a consequence of a challenging regional and international situation that forced India to defend its national interests.
Here are the reasons to support this view:
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External Aggression, Not Indian Initiative: In each case, the conflict was not initiated by India. The 1962 war was a result of a swift and massive invasion by China over long-standing border disputes. The 1965 war began with armed attacks by Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch, followed by a major offensive in Jammu and Kashmir. The 1971 war was the culmination of a brutal internal crisis in Pakistan, where the military regime in West Pakistan launched a reign of terror in East Pakistan, leading to a massive refugee influx into India.
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Compulsion to Defend Sovereignty: A policy of peace does not imply surrendering territorial integrity. In 1962, India had to respond to a direct attack on its territory. In 1965, Prime Minister Shastri ordered a counter-offensive on the Punjab border to relieve pressure on the Kashmir front and defend the nation. A nation's foreign policy must prioritize the protection of its sovereignty, and resorting to military force in self-defence is not a failure of a peaceful policy but a necessary response to aggression.
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Complex International and Regional Dynamics: The international context of the Cold War and regional rivalries played a significant role. Pakistan's decision to join US-led military alliances emboldened its stance against non-aligned India. In 1971, the formation of a US-Pakistan-China axis created a formidable challenge for India. India's response, including the signing of the Indo-Soviet Treaty and subsequent military intervention in support of Bangladesh, was a pragmatic reaction to a grave humanitarian crisis on its border and a hostile regional alignment.
In conclusion, while India's foreign policy aimed for peace, it operated in a volatile neighborhood. The wars were a reflection of the fact that a nation's foreign policy cannot exist in a vacuum; it must react to the actions of other states and the prevailing international situation. Therefore, the conflicts were more a result of unavoidable geopolitical circumstances than a failure of India's foundational principles.
Q8Exercises
Does India's foreign policy reflect her desire to be an important regional power? Argue your case with the Bangladesh war of 1971 as an example.
Solution
Yes, India's foreign policy, particularly as demonstrated during the Bangladesh War of 1971, clearly reflects its desire and capacity to be an important regional power.
The 1971 war was not merely a conflict between India and Pakistan; it was a decisive moment where India projected its influence to reshape the political geography of South Asia based on its strategic interests and humanitarian concerns. The following points from the 1971 war serve as strong evidence:
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Managing a Regional Crisis: Pakistan's internal crisis led to about 80 lakh refugees fleeing into India. This was a massive economic and social burden. India's ability to manage this crisis and provide shelter to the refugees demonstrated its capacity to absorb regional shocks and act as a stabilizing force.
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Diplomatic and Strategic Maneuvering: Before intervening militarily, India launched a diplomatic offensive to build international support for the cause of Bangladesh. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi toured world capitals to explain India's position. Crucially, India signed the 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in August 1971. This treaty acted as a deterrent against potential intervention from the US-China-Pakistan axis, showcasing India's ability to forge strategic alliances to secure its regional objectives.
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Decisive Military Victory: India's swift and decisive military intervention led to the surrender of the Pakistani army in Dhaka in just 13 days. This overwhelming victory not only liberated Bangladesh but also established India's military superiority in the region. It fundamentally altered the balance of power in South Asia and cemented India's status as the pre-eminent regional power.