Self and PersonalityClass 12 Psychology NCERT Solutions
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Q1Review Questions
What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?
Solution
Self
Self refers to the totality of an individual's conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings with regard to herself or himself. It represents the characteristic ways in which we define our existence. The structure of the self is formed through our interactions with others and our experiences, and it helps define our personal and social identity.
Difference between Indian and Western Notions of Self
The primary difference between the Indian and Western notions of self lies in how the boundary between the self and the 'other' is conceptualized.
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Western Notion: In the Western view, the self and the group are seen as two distinct entities with a relatively fixed and clearly defined boundary. This perspective emphasizes individuality, personal freedom, and personal achievement. Cultures influenced by this view are often described as individualistic.
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Indian Notion: The Indian view of self is characterized by a shifting or fluid boundary between the self and the other. The self is not seen as separate from one's group; instead, they exist in a state of harmonious co-existence. At times, the self can expand to include others or even the cosmos, while at other moments, it can focus entirely on individual needs. This view does not create clear dichotomies between self and other or man and nature. Cultures with this perspective are often described as collectivistic.
Q2Review Questions
What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult development?
Solution
Delay of Gratification
Delay of gratification, also known as self-control, refers to the ability to delay or defer the satisfaction of certain needs. It is a key aspect of self-regulation where an individual resists immediate temptations or situational pressures to achieve long-term goals. It is often described as exercising 'will power' to control one's own behaviour.
Importance for Adult Development
Delay of gratification is considered crucial for adult development because:
- Achievement of Long-Term Goals: Many significant life goals, such as completing education, building a career, or maintaining good health, require sacrificing immediate pleasures for future benefits. Self-control is essential for staying focused on these long-term objectives.
- Emotional and Social Maturity: The ability to manage impulses and defer satisfaction is a sign of psychological maturity. It allows individuals to navigate social situations more effectively, avoid impulsive and potentially harmful behaviours, and build stable relationships.
- Adaptability: People high on self-control can change their behaviour according to the demands of the external environment. This adaptability is crucial for successfully managing the various challenges and responsibilities of adult life.
Q3Review Questions
How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality?
Solution
Definition of Personality
In psychological terms, personality refers to the unique and relatively stable qualities that characterize an individual's behaviour across different situations and over a period of time. It encompasses the characteristic ways we respond to individuals and situations. Personality has both physical and psychological components, and its main features do not easily change with time, although it can be dynamic and adaptive to situational demands.
Main Approaches to the Study of Personality
The main approaches to studying personality are:
- Type Approach: This approach attempts to understand personality by categorizing people into broad patterns or types based on their observed behavioural characteristics.
- Trait Approach: This approach focuses on identifying specific and stable psychological attributes (traits) along which individuals differ, such as shyness or friendliness.
- Psychodynamic Approach: Developed by Sigmund Freud, this approach focuses on unconscious motives, conflicts, and desires, particularly from early childhood, as the primary drivers of personality.
- Behavioural Approach: This approach views personality as a set of learned responses to the environment. It emphasizes observable behaviours and the role of reinforcement and learning principles.
- Cultural Approach: This approach seeks to understand personality in the context of the ecological and cultural environment, viewing personality as an adaptation to the demands of a group's way of life.
- Humanistic Approach: This approach emphasizes the subjective experiences of individuals, their innate goodness, and their potential for growth and self-actualization.
Q4Review Questions
What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach?
Solution
Trait Approach to Personality
The trait approach focuses on identifying the basic components or 'building blocks' of personality. A trait is defined as a relatively enduring attribute or quality on which one individual differs from another. These traits, such as honesty, shyness, or assertiveness, are considered to be stable over time and consistent across situations. This approach attempts to describe personality by identifying a person's primary characteristics and rating them on the degree to which they possess these traits.
Difference from Type Approach
The trait approach differs from the type approach in the following ways:
- Focus: The type approach categorizes people into a few distinct and broad personality types. It assigns an individual to a single category (e.g., introvert or extravert). In contrast, the trait approach focuses on specific psychological attributes and describes people in terms of the degree to which they possess these traits. It does not put people into boxes but rather on a continuum.
- Representation: The type approach represents a cluster of expected behaviours based on similarity to a pattern. For example, a Type-A personality is expected to be impatient, competitive, and always in a hurry. The trait approach, however, breaks personality down into finer components. A person is not just one 'type' but a unique combination of various traits, each with a different strength.
- Complexity: Type approaches are often criticized for being too simplistic, as human behaviour is highly complex and does not fit neatly into a few categories. The trait approach allows for a more detailed and nuanced description of an individual's personality by considering multiple traits simultaneously.
Q5Review Questions
How does Freud explain the structure of personality?
Solution
Sigmund Freud explained the structure of personality using his psychoanalytic theory, which posits that personality is composed of three primary structural elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. These are not physical structures but concepts that represent competing forces within the unconscious mind.
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Id: The id is the most primitive part of the personality and is the source of all instinctual energy (libido). It operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of primitive needs, sexual desires, and aggressive impulses. The id is demanding, unrealistic, and does not care for moral values or social norms.
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Ego: The ego develops out of the id and serves as the mediator between the id's demands and the constraints of the external world. It operates on the reality principle, seeking to satisfy the id's instincts in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The ego is patient and reasonable, directing the id towards more suitable ways of behaving to avoid negative consequences.
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Superego: The superego represents the moral branch of mental functioning. It internalizes the values and ideals of parents and society. The superego tells the id and the ego whether a particular action is morally right or wrong. It controls the id's impulses, especially those that are forbidden by society, such as sex and aggression.
According to Freud, the relative strength and interaction of the id, ego, and superego determine an individual's personality and stability. A constant conflict exists among these three forces, and the ego's role is to manage this conflict and reduce the resulting anxiety.
Q6Review Questions
How would Horney's explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?
Solution
Karen Horney and Alfred Adler were both post-Freudian theorists, but they would explain depression from different perspectives based on their core theories.
Karen Horney's Explanation
Horney would likely attribute depression to disturbed interpersonal relationships during childhood. According to her theory:
- Depression could stem from basic anxiety, a feeling of insecurity and helplessness that arises when a child's needs for safety and satisfaction are not met due to parental indifference, dominance, or erratic behaviour.
- This basic anxiety can lead to basic hostility (deep resentment towards parents), which is often repressed.
- The individual's feelings of isolation, helplessness, and inability to form healthy relationships could manifest as depression. Her focus would be on social and cultural factors and the disruption of the need for security in early life.
Alfred Adler's Explanation
Adler's explanation of depression would center on his concept of the inferiority complex. According to his individual psychology:
- He believed every individual suffers from feelings of inadequacy and guilt, which arise from childhood experiences of being small and helpless.
- Depression could be seen as an extreme manifestation of an unresolved inferiority complex, where the person feels overwhelmed by their perceived inadequacies and unable to strive for superiority or achieve their personal goals.
- This feeling of being unable to overcome life's challenges would lead to a lack of motivation, a pessimistic outlook, and a withdrawal from social engagement, which are characteristic of depression. The focus for Adler would be on the individual's failure to overcome feelings of inferiority and create a meaningful, goal-directed lifestyle.
Q7Review Questions
What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow mean by self-actualisation?
Solution
Main Proposition of the Humanistic Approach
The main proposition of the humanistic approach to personality is its focus on the positive aspects of human nature and the subjective experiences of individuals. It was developed in response to the perceived pessimism of psychoanalysis and the mechanistic nature of behaviourism. The core ideas of the humanistic approach are:
- Innate Goodness: It assumes that people are innately good and will almost always choose adaptive, self-actualizing behaviour.
- Fulfillment and Growth: It posits that fulfillment is the motivating force for personality development. People have an inborn tendency to express their capabilities, potentials, and talents to the fullest extent possible.
- Free Will: It emphasizes that human beings are free to shape their own lives and make their own choices.
Maslow's Concept of Self-Actualisation
Abraham Maslow, a key figure in humanistic psychology, used the term self-actualisation to describe a state in which people have reached their own fullest potential. It is the highest level of psychological development in his hierarchy of needs.
- Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. The lower-order needs (biological, security, belongingness) must be satisfied before an individual can pursue higher-order needs (self-esteem and self-actualisation).
- The Journey of Human Life: According to Maslow, the real journey of human life begins with the pursuit of these higher-order needs. Self-actualisation involves analyzing the motivations that govern our life and striving to become the best person we can be.
- Characteristics of Self-Actualised People: Psychologically healthy, self-actualised people have realised their potential for love, joy, and creative work. They are true to their own feelings and live fully in the here-and-now.
Q8Review Questions
Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems do we face in using these methods?
Solution
Observational methods, also known as behavioural analysis, assess personality by observing an individual's behaviour in various situations. The main methods include:
- Interview: This involves talking to the person being assessed. It can be unstructured, where the interviewer asks open-ended questions to form an impression, or structured, which uses a specific set of questions to allow for objective comparisons.
- Observation: This involves systematically watching and recording a person's behaviour. For example, a clinical psychologist might observe a client's interactions with their family to gain insight into their personality. It requires careful training and a detailed guideline for analysis.
- Behavioural Ratings: These are used to assess individuals on specific behavioural qualities, often by people who know them well. Raters place the individual into categories using a rating scale. For effectiveness, the traits being rated should be clearly defined with behavioural anchors.
- Nomination: This method is often used for peer assessment. Participants in a group are asked to choose one or more persons with whom they would like to participate in a specific activity, providing insight into the chosen person's personality and social standing.
- Situational Tests: These tests assess personality by presenting a person with a specific situation and observing their behaviour. A common example is the situational stress test, which evaluates how a person behaves under stressful and non-cooperative conditions.
Problems Faced in Using These Methods
- Demanding Training: Collecting useful and valid data through methods like interviews and observation requires extensive professional training, which is time-consuming.
- Subjectivity and Bias: The maturity and skill of the psychologist are crucial. Furthermore, raters in behavioural ratings can be influenced by biases such as the halo effect (letting one positive or negative trait influence overall judgment) or response biases (like always choosing the middle or extreme options on a scale).
- Observer Effect: The mere presence of an observer can influence or contaminate the behaviour of the person being observed, leading to a failure to obtain authentic data.
Q9Review Questions
What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used structured personality tests?
Solution
Structured Personality Tests
Structured personality tests, also known as self-report measures, are formal assessment tools that are fairly structured and often based on a specific theory. In these tests, individuals are required to give verbal responses to a series of items, often using a rating scale (e.g., 'true/false', 'agree/disagree').
The key features of these tests are:
- The subject is asked to report objectively on their own feelings, thoughts, and behaviours.
- Responses are accepted at face value.
- The responses are scored in quantitative terms and interpreted based on norms developed for the test.
Two Most Widely Used Structured Personality Tests
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The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): This is a widely used test for personality assessment, particularly in psychiatric diagnosis. The revised version, MMPI-2, consists of 567 statements to which the subject responds 'true' or 'false'. It has 10 subscales that help diagnose various psychopathologies like depression, hysteria, schizophrenia, and social introversion.
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Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF): Developed by Raymond Cattell, this test is based on his identification of 16 primary or source traits that form the building blocks of personality. The test consists of declarative statements, and the subject responds by choosing from a set of given alternatives. The 16 PF is extremely useful in career guidance, vocational exploration, and occupational testing.
Q10Review Questions
Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists?
Solution
How Projective Techniques Assess Personality
Projective techniques are indirect methods of personality assessment designed to uncover the unconscious part of our behaviour, including hidden motives, feelings, and conflicts. They operate on the assumption that when an individual is presented with a less structured or ambiguous stimulus (like an inkblot or a vague picture), they will project their own feelings, desires, and needs onto it.
The key features of these techniques are:
- The stimuli are unstructured and poorly defined.
- The person being assessed is not told the true purpose of the assessment.
- There are no 'correct' or 'incorrect' responses.
- Each response is believed to reveal a significant aspect of the individual's personality.
- Interpretation is qualitative and requires extensive training.
By analyzing these projections, experts can gain insight into the unconscious dynamics of an individual's personality that direct methods like self-reports cannot access.
Widely Used Projective Tests
Two of the most widely used projective tests are:
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The Rorschach Inkblot Test: Developed by Hermann Rorschach, this test consists of 10 inkblots (some black and white, some with colour). The individual is shown each blot and asked to describe what they see. The responses are then analyzed in detail during an inquiry phase to understand the basis of their perceptions. Interpretation requires extensive training and skill.
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The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Developed by Morgan and Murray, this test consists of a set of black and white picture cards depicting one or more people in various ambiguous situations. The individual is asked to tell a story about each picture, including what led up to the situation, what is happening, what the characters are feeling, and what the outcome will be. The stories are believed to reveal the subject's underlying needs, conflicts, and view of the world.
Q11Review Questions
Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career. Using Carl Rogers' terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant's family.
Solution
Using Carl Rogers' humanistic terminology, the attitudes shown by Arihant's family can be described in terms of the concepts of ideal self, real self, and unconditional positive regard.
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Ideal Self vs. Real Self: Rogers' theory is structured around the concept of self. Arihant's real self is who he truly is and what he wants to be—a singer. His family, however, has an ideal self in mind for him—a doctor. The discrepancy between Arihant's real self and the ideal self his family wants for him is a source of conflict and dissatisfaction.
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Lack of Unconditional Positive Regard: According to Rogers, for a person to grow and self-actualize, they need an environment that provides unconditional positive regard. This means being accepted, valued, and loved for who you are, without any conditions. Arihant's family is failing to provide this. Their love and approval are conditional upon him meeting their expectations (becoming a doctor). This creates what Rogers called conditions of worth.
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Incongruence: Because the family's regard is conditional, Arihant is likely to experience incongruence—a gap between his real self (the desire to be a singer) and the experiences he has with his family (disapproval). This incongruence can lead to unhappiness and prevent him from becoming a 'fully functioning person' who is true to his own feelings and potentials. A positive environment would involve his family accepting his choice, even if it is different from their own, thereby enhancing his self-concept and self-esteem.