Cultural ChangeClass 12 Social Change and Development in India NCERT Solutions
3 Solutions
Generated by KedovoAI
Solution 1 of 3
Q1Questions
Write a critical essay on sanskritisation.
Solution
The term 'Sanskritisation' was coined by sociologist M.N. Srinivas to describe the process by which a 'low' caste, tribe, or other group adopts the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology, and lifestyle of a high, particularly a 'twice-born' (dwija), caste. This process is a significant form of cultural change in India, aimed at improving a group's position in the local caste hierarchy. However, as a concept and a process, it has been subject to considerable criticism.
Process and Impact of Sanskritisation:
Sanskritisation is often preceded by an improvement in the economic or political status of the aspiring group. The influence of this process is widespread, affecting language, literature, ideology, music, dance, and daily life. The 'reference model' for emulation is typically a culturally high-placed and financially better-off group. The process varies regionally; in areas dominated by a highly Sanskritised caste, the entire region's culture may be affected, while in other areas, non-Sanskritic influences might be stronger, leading to 'de-Sanskritisation'.
A Critical Evaluation:
Despite its prevalence, Sanskritisation has been criticised on several grounds:
-
Exaggeration of Social Mobility: Critics argue that Sanskritisation leads to 'positional change' for a few individuals or groups rather than 'structural change' for the system as a whole. It does not alter the fundamental structure of caste-based inequality; it only allows some to move within the existing hierarchical framework, while the framework itself remains unchallenged.
-
Acceptance of a Hegemonic Model: The process inherently accepts the customs and values of the upper castes as superior and those of the lower castes as inferior. It reinforces the legitimacy of the caste hierarchy by encouraging imitation of the dominant groups, rather than questioning the very basis of that dominance.
-
Justification of Inequality and Exclusion: By aspiring to an upper-caste model, Sanskritisation implicitly accepts the principles of purity and pollution that are central to caste discrimination. It does not challenge the oppressive nature of the caste system but instead seeks accommodation within it.
-
Negative Consequences for Women: The adoption of upper-caste norms often leads to a decline in the status of women. Practices such as the seclusion of women, the shift from bride-price to dowry, and stricter patriarchal controls are often adopted as markers of higher status, thereby diminishing women's freedom and autonomy.
-
Erosion of Dalit and Lower-Caste Cultures: Sanskritisation leads to the degradation of the unique cultural practices, skills, and knowledge systems of lower castes. The value of their labour, crafts, and artisanal abilities is eroded, and their distinct cultural identities are deemed 'shameful' in comparison to the dominant Sanskritic culture.
In conclusion, while Sanskritisation offers a path for upward mobility for some groups, it is a flawed and limited process. It operates within the confines of a deeply unequal social structure, reinforces patriarchal norms, and devalues the rich cultural heritage of marginalised communities. More recent trends, such as the assertion of Dalit identity, represent a direct challenge to the ideology of Sanskritisation by rejecting imitation and instead celebrating their own culture and history.
Q2Questions
Westernisation is often just about adoption of western attire and lifestyle. Are there other aspects to being westernised? Or is that about modernisation? Discuss.
Solution
The notion that Westernisation is merely about adopting Western attire and lifestyle is a limited understanding of a complex process. While these external adoptions are a visible aspect, Westernisation, as defined by M.N. Srinivas, encompasses far deeper changes in Indian society and culture resulting from over 150 years of British rule. It is crucial to distinguish these aspects from the related but distinct concept of modernisation.
Multiple Dimensions of Westernisation:
Westernisation operates on several levels beyond superficial lifestyle changes:
- Institutions and Technology: It includes the adoption of Western technology, educational institutions, legal systems, and administrative practices.
- Ideology and Values: A significant aspect of Westernisation was the emergence of a Westernised sub-culture, particularly among Indian intellectuals and reformers in the 19th century. This group not only adopted Western lifestyles but also engaged with Western ideas of liberalism, humanism, and rationalism. They used these ideas to critique and reform their own society.
- Cognitive Patterns: Westernisation also refers to the adoption of Western ways of thinking, as seen in the fields of art and literature. Artists like Raja Ravi Varma, for example, blended Western techniques of oil painting and perspective with Indian themes, creating a new artistic language.
Distinction between Westernisation and Modernisation:
The text suggests a clear distinction between Westernisation and modernisation. Modernisation refers to a broader set of values and processes, not tied to a specific culture. It implies a shift towards:
- Universalism over parochialism.
- Scientific and rational thought over sacred or emotional beliefs.
- Achieved status over ascribed status (based on birth).
- Individualism and choice over group determinism.
- Values of democracy and equality.
Westernisation and modernisation are not synonymous. A person or society can be Westernised without being modern. The textbook provides clear examples:
- One can adopt external forms of Western culture, such as home decor or dress, while holding conservative and discriminatory views about women's roles or other communities.
- The use of modern medical technology for female foeticide is a stark example of combining a product of Western science with deeply anti-modern, discriminatory values.
Conversely, the core values of modernisation, like equality and democracy, can be embraced without adopting a Western lifestyle. The nationalist movement, for instance, drew on modern ideas of liberty and nationhood to challenge colonial rule, while simultaneously asserting pride in indigenous traditions.
In conclusion, Westernisation is a multi-layered process that goes beyond attire and lifestyle to include institutions, ideas, and ways of thinking. However, it is primarily about the imitation of a specific culture (Western). Modernisation, on the other hand, is about the adoption of a set of universal values such as rationality, democracy, and equality. While the two processes have been historically linked in India due to colonialism, they are conceptually distinct. One can be Westernised without being truly modern, and the pursuit of modernity does not necessitate complete Westernisation.
Q3Questions
Write short notes on: Rites and secularisation Caste and secularisation Gender and sanskritisation
Solution
- Rites and secularisation
Secularisation is often understood as a decline in the influence of religion. However, in the Indian context, it has manifested in complex ways, particularly concerning rituals. While rites and rituals remain central to social life, many have undergone a process of secularisation. This does not necessarily mean they have lost their religious meaning, but rather that their secular dimensions—social, economic, and political—have become increasingly prominent.
Rituals in India serve significant secular goals. They provide occasions for socialising with peers and superiors, reinforcing social networks. Furthermore, they have become a primary platform for the conspicuous display of a family's wealth, status, and social connections. The textbook notes that at a wedding, the number of cars parked outside or the attendance of VIPs serves as an 'index to the household's standing in the local community'. In this sense, the ritual's function as a status symbol and a social event can often overshadow its purely religious purpose. Thus, secularisation in this context refers to the growing importance of the worldly dimensions of religious rituals.
- Caste and secularisation
The secularisation of caste refers to the transformation of the caste system from a primarily ritual and religious framework to a political one. Traditionally, caste identities and hierarchies were defined by religious concepts of purity and pollution. An individual's social standing and occupation were largely determined by birth within this religious hierarchy.
In contemporary India, this role has significantly changed. Caste now often functions as a powerful tool for political mobilisation. Caste groups have organised themselves into associations and political parties to articulate their interests and make demands on the state for resources, representation, and power. As political scientist Rajni Kothari argued, politics in a caste-oriented society naturally uses the caste structure to mobilise support. This process has changed the form of caste itself, turning it into a secular entity that competes in the democratic arena. While caste identities remain, their function has shifted from being a marker in a sacred hierarchy to being a basis for secular political allegiance and action.
- Gender and sanskritisation
Sanskritisation, the process of a lower caste emulating the practices of an upper caste to gain social status, has a distinctly gendered impact, often leading to a deterioration in the status of women within the aspiring group. When a community adopts upper-caste norms, it frequently embraces the associated patriarchal values as a marker of respectability.
This process often involves:
- Increased restrictions on women: The adoption of practices like the seclusion of girls and women, limiting their mobility and access to education and public life.
- Shift from bride-price to dowry: Many lower-caste communities traditionally practiced bride-price, which acknowledged a woman's economic value. Sanskritisation often leads to the adoption of dowry, which can frame women as an economic liability.
- Reinforcement of patriarchy: The overall effect is a tightening of patriarchal control over women's lives, sexuality, and choices.
Therefore, while Sanskritisation may lead to a 'positional change' or upward mobility for the men of the community, it can have the reverse effect for women, whose freedoms are curtailed in the pursuit of a higher social status for the group.