Key Points

Indian culture is several millennia old, with its roots traced back to the Indus or Harappan or Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation. Many diverse schools of thought have emerged over time, shaping India's unique personality.

The Vedas are the most ancient texts of India, and among the oldest in the world, comprising four main texts: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. The word Veda comes from the Sanskrit word 'vid' which means 'knowledge'.

Vedic hymns, composed by rishis and rishikas, were recited orally and transmitted meticulously for thousands of years with hardly any alterations. UNESCO recognized Vedic chanting as a masterpiece of oral and intangible heritage.

Early Vedic seers saw gods and goddesses as one, sustaining 'ritam' or truth and order in human life and the cosmos. The Rig Veda emphasizes 'Truth' as another name for God and calls for unity among people.

Early Vedic society was organized into 'janas' or clans, such as the Bharatas and Purus, associated with specific regions of the northwest Subcontinent. Many professions like agriculturist, weaver, and healer are mentioned in Vedic texts.

The Upanishads built upon Vedic concepts, introducing new ideas such as rebirth and karma. They also presented the concept of 'brahman', the one divine essence of everything, and 'atman', the divine essence residing in every being.

Vedanta is a school of thought that considers everything to be one divine essence called brahman. Yoga developed methods intended to achieve the realization of brahman in one's consciousness, forming foundations for what is now called Hinduism.

Siddhartha Gautama, born in Lumbini around 560 BCE, attained enlightenment under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya, becoming known as the Buddha. He realized that avidya or ignorance and attachment are the source of human suffering.

The Buddha taught 'ahimsa', meaning non-hurting or non-injuring, and insisted on sincere inner discipline. He founded the Sangha, a community of monks and nuns, to practice and spread his teachings.

Prince Vardhamana, born near Vaishali in the early 6th century BCE, left home to seek spiritual knowledge and, after 12 years of ascetic discipline, achieved 'infinite knowledge'. He became known as Mahavira, or 'great hero'.

Jain teachings include 'ahimsa' (non-violence), 'anekantavada' (truth has many aspects), and 'aparigraha' (non-possession or detachment from material possessions). Jainism emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of all creatures.

Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain schools, despite their differences, shared common concepts such as dharma, karma, rebirth, and the search for an end to suffering and ignorance. These shared ideas form a common trunk of Indian culture.

India has rich oral folk and tribal traditions, which are teachings or practices transmitted through everyday practice without written texts. A tribe is a group of families or clans sharing common descent, culture, and language.

There has been constant interaction and mutual enrichment between folk and tribal traditions and leading schools of thought like Hinduism. Deities, concepts, legends, and rituals have been freely exchanged in both directions.

In folk and tribal belief systems, elements of nature such as mountains, rivers, trees, plants, animals, and stones are often regarded as sacred. Many tribes worship deities associated with these natural elements.

Despite a multiplicity of deities, many tribal groups also have a concept of a higher divinity or supreme being, such as Donyipolo in Arunachal Pradesh or Singbonga among the Munda and Santhal tribals.

Ancient India featured a wide diversity of intellectual and spiritual belief systems, including schools like the Chārvāka, which believed only the material world exists. People were generally free to choose what suited them.