Key Points

From the 6th to 10th centuries, after the fall of the Gupta Empire, India was characterized by the rise of many powerful regional kingdoms instead of one large empire.

Harshavardhana, who ruled from Kannauj in the 7th century, was a patron of art and literature, supporting scholars like Banabhatta, author of the Harshacharita.

Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, visited India during Harsha's reign. His detailed travelogue is a major historical source for understanding the politics, culture, and society of that period.

The Palas, the Gurjara-Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas fought for control over the strategic city of Kannauj for nearly two centuries. This long conflict is known as the Tripartite Struggle.

The Pala dynasty ruled over eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar. They were great patrons of Mahayana Buddhism and founded major learning centers like the Vikramashila University.

The Gurjara-Pratiharas controlled western India and were famous for successfully resisting Arab invasions from the west, protecting the subcontinent for a long time.

The Rashtrakutas were a dominant power in the Deccan. King Krishna I is credited with building the magnificent rock-cut Kailashanatha temple at Ellora.

The Chalukyas ruled the Deccan before the Rashtrakutas. Their most famous king, Pulakeshin II, defeated Harshavardhana and prevented his expansion into the south.

The Pallavas, with their capital at Kanchipuram, were a major power in the far south. They are renowned for their unique rock-cut monolithic temples at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram).

In the 9th century, the Chola dynasty was revived by Vijayalaya. They established their capital at Thanjavur and went on to build one of South India's greatest empires.

Kings in this period often ruled their core territories directly but governed outlying regions through subordinate rulers known as samantas or vassals. These samantas provided military support but could also rebel.

Indian society became more complex with the multiplication of jatis, which were often based on occupation or region. The varna-jati system, however, remained flexible in many areas.

Despite political fragmentation, trade flourished. India's west coast traded with Arabia and Africa, while the east coast connected with Southeast Asia and China.

This period saw the rise of the Bhakti movement, emphasizing personal devotion to a deity. It began in the south with the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva).

This era produced brilliant mathematicians and astronomers. Brahmagupta introduced rules for operating with zero and negative numbers, which were later transmitted to the Arab world and Europe.

The Hunas, a nomadic people from Central Asia, invaded northern India in the 5th and 6th centuries. Though they were eventually defeated, they contributed to the weakening of the Gupta Empire.

In the early 8th century, Arab armies under Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh. However, their further expansion into India was checked for centuries by rulers like the Gurjara-Pratiharas.

Rulers of this period generally patronized various religious traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. This promoted a vibrant cultural pluralism and led to the creation of magnificent art and architecture.