Key Points

The 'Second Urbanisation' refers to the vibrant new phase of city life that began in the Ganga plains during the 1st millennium BCE, a thousand years after the collapse of the Harappan civilization.

Janapadas were territories where clans of people settled, led by a ruler known as a raja. The Sanskrit word 'janapada' means 'where the people have set foot'.

By the 7th century BCE, some janapadas merged to form larger and more powerful states called mahajanapadas. Ancient texts list 16 major mahajanapadas across north and central India.

Many mahajanapadas were located in the fertile Ganga plains. This was due to rich agricultural land, availability of iron ore, and new trade networks.

The mahajanapadas had two main political systems: monarchies with hereditary kings, and ganas or sanghas which were early forms of republics.

In monarchies like Magadha and Kosala, the raja was the supreme authority. The king collected taxes, maintained an army, and was usually succeeded by his son.

Mahajanapadas like Vajji and Malla were ganas or sanghas. Here, an assembly of members made key decisions, including the selection of the ruler, through discussion and voting.

Most mahajanapadas had large, well-fortified capital cities. They were protected by high walls, moats, and narrow gateways to control movement and provide defense.

The widespread use of iron was a major technological innovation of this era. Iron tools improved agriculture, while iron weapons like swords and spears were superior to bronze.

Growing trade led to the first use of coins in India. These were called 'punch-marked coins' and were initially made of silver with symbols punched on them.

Society was organized into four varnas based on Vedic texts. These were Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers).

Along with varna, society was also divided into jatis. A jati was a community based on a specific occupation, with skills often passed from one generation to the next.

Two important trade routes connected the subcontinent: the Uttarapatha, linking the northwest to eastern India, and the Dakshinapatha, running from the Ganga plains to the south.

From about 400 BCE, cities and kingdoms also emerged in the south. The three major kingdoms were the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas, known for trading in spices and gems.

By around 300 BCE, the mahajanapadas ceased to exist as independent states. This period ended with the rise of larger, more centralized empires in India.