Key Points

The 11th and 12th centuries are considered a transitional period in Indian history, marked by Turkic invasions in the north and the simultaneous rise of powerful regional kingdoms.

In the early 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni, a Turkic ruler, conducted 17 raids into north India. His primary motive was to plunder wealth from rich temple towns, not to establish an empire.

Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the Hindu Shahi dynasty, which controlled the Khyber Pass. This victory gave him easy access to the northern plains of India for his campaigns.

Al-Biruni was a Persian scholar who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni. He wrote a detailed book on Indian society, science, and philosophy, providing a valuable historical account of the period.

In the late 12th century, Muhammad Ghuri invaded India with the goal of territorial conquest. Unlike Mahmud, he sought to establish permanent rule, which had a lasting impact on Indian politics.

Two crucial battles were fought at Tarain between Muhammad Ghuri and Prithviraja III (Chauhan). Ghuri was defeated in the first battle (1191) but returned to win the second battle (1192), leading to the capture of Delhi.

The Cholas were a dominant power in South India, known for their powerful navy, extensive trade, and efficient administration. Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were their most famous rulers.

Rajendra Chola I conducted a major naval expedition against the Shrivijaya Empire in Southeast Asia to control trade routes. The Cholas also built magnificent temples like the Brihadishvara Temple in Thanjavur.

In eastern India, the Sena dynasty ruled Bengal, while the Eastern Gangas ruled Kalinga (Odisha). The Eastern Gangas are credited with building the Sun Temple at Konark and the Jagannatha Temple at Puri.

The Hoysala dynasty in Karnataka is renowned for its unique and intricate style of temple architecture. The temples at Belur, Halebidu, and Somanathapura are masterpieces of Hoysala art.

King Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa was a celebrated ruler and scholar. He wrote extensively on subjects like architecture and governance and is credited with constructing the large Bhojtal lake.

The destruction of major Buddhist monasteries and universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila by Bakhtiyar Khilji, a general of Muhammad Ghuri, is seen as a major cause for the decline of Buddhism in India.

Bhaskaracharya, also known as Bhaskara II, was a brilliant 12th-century mathematician and astronomer. His key works, 'Lilavati' (on mathematics) and 'Siddhantashiromani' (on astronomy), were influential for centuries.

This era saw influential thinkers like Ramanujacharya, a philosopher-saint from South India, and Basaveshvara, who founded the Lingayat movement in Karnataka. Basaveshvara strongly opposed the caste system and promoted social equality.

Despite the invasions and political changes in the north, many parts of India continued to thrive. Internal and external trade, art, literature, and temple construction flourished, showing great resilience.