Patterns of Social Inequality and ExclusionClass 12 Indian Society NCERT Solutions

Reservations: This is the most important state initiative. It involves setting aside a proportion of seats for members of Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in:

Legislation: A number of laws have been passed to prohibit and punish caste discrimination.

Position in Caste Hierarchy: Dalits, or the ex-untouchables, were historically considered outside the caste hierarchy altogether, at the very bottom of the purity-pollution scale. In contrast, the OBCs were part of the caste hierarchy, occupying the lower rungs as service and artisanal castes. They were considered 'shudra' varnas.

Experience of Discrimination: Dalits were subjected to the extreme and vicious practice of untouchability, which involved severe forms of exclusion, humiliation, and exploitation. While OBCs also faced discrimination and were of low status, they were not subjected to untouchability.

Diversity: The OBC category is much more diverse than the Dalits. It includes a wide range of castes with varying socio-economic conditions. There are 'upper' OBCs, who are often landed castes with significant local power, and 'lower' OBCs, whose socio-economic condition is often not very different from that of the Dalits.

Constitutional Category: The Constitution identifies OBCs as 'socially and educationally backward classes', a category distinct from the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. They are defined negatively as those who are neither 'forward' castes nor Dalits.

Loss of Forests and Livelihoods: The colonial government reserved most forest tracts, severing the rights of Adivasis to use the forest for their livelihood (gathering produce, shifting cultivation). This policy continued after Independence, denying them access to their primary resource base and making their lives poorer and more insecure.

Displacement due to 'Development' Projects: Adivasi lands are rich in mineral resources and ideal for power generation projects. In the name of 'national development', their lands have been rapidly acquired for mining, industrial projects, and the construction of large dams (like the Sardar Sarovar and Polavaram dams). This has led to the displacement of millions of Adivasis, often without proper compensation or rehabilitation.

Internal Colonialism and Alienation: The policies of capital-intensive industrialization and resource extraction have been a form of internal colonialism, subjugating Adivasis and alienating them from the resources upon which they depend. The benefits of 'development' in their lands have largely gone to non-tribal populations, while Adivasis have borne the costs.

Intrusion by Outsiders: The movement of non-tribals, moneylenders, and corporate firms into tribal areas has led to the loss of their land and culture. The term 'Adivasi' itself connotes a political awareness and assertion of rights against these intrusions.

Nineteenth-Century Social Reform: The 'women's question' first arose as part of the 19th-century middle-class social reform movements. The focus was on reforming what were seen as backward aspects of Indian tradition. Key issues included:

Nationalist Movement: In the early 20th century, women's participation in the freedom struggle grew. The nationalist vision included a commitment to women's equality. The Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress (1931) passed a declaration committing to women's equality, including universal adult suffrage and the right to hold public office.

Post-Independence (1970s Onwards): After a lull, women's issues re-emerged in the 1970s with a new focus on 'modern' issues. These included:

Contemporary Challenges: In the 21st century, new sites of gender injustice have emerged. A major issue is the declining child sex ratio, which points to a deep-seated social bias against the girl child and the practice of sex-selective abortion.

Social Construction of Disability: Society is often built in a manner that does not cater to the needs of people with impairments. For example, a person using a wheelchair is 'disabled' by buildings that have only stairs and no ramps. This lack of access leads to further disablements, limiting their opportunities for education, employment, and social life. The problem lies in the construction of society, not in the individual's physical condition.

Cultural Perceptions and Attitudes: Cultural attitudes create disability. In India, disability is often viewed as a result of fate or past karma, and labels like 'bechara' (poor thing) cast the person as a victim. This perception focuses on the individual's 'defect' rather than on the societal barriers they face.

Invisibility and Marginalisation: The needs of the differently-abled are often invisible in public discourse and planning. This is evident in the educational system, which has historically maintained separate streams for disabled students, marginalising them from mainstream society.

Link with Poverty: There is a strong link between disability and poverty. Malnutrition and poor living conditions can cause disability, while disability can create and worsen poverty by increasing isolation and economic strain. Society's failure to provide support exacerbates this cycle.